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“Alexander Woollcott 


Paul Louis Hexter, A.R.P.S , 







WaL y o ur 


pictured 



HOW TO PERFECT YOUR TECHNIQUE 


By 

PAUL LOUIS HEXTER, A.R.P.S. 


CAMERA CRAFT PUBLISHING COMPANY 
376 Sutter St, San Francisco 8, Calif, 



Camera Craft Publishing Company 

San Francisco 




■ 1 , 


First Edition 
April 1940 

Second Edition 
January 1946 


©aft 


Printed in the United States of America 
by The Mercury Press, San Francisco 


2 453 




RECEIVED 

APR 15 1946 


CGgSRlGHT OFFICE 




To my wife, who for five years was undoubt¬ 
edly the most photographed woman in the world. 
Most of the pictures were never seen by her. 

I also want to thank Baron Mario Bucovitch who 
showed me that photography could be much more 
than a pleasant pastime; William Mortensen 
who charted my course in pictorial photography; 
Charles Shipman for advice on many technical 
matters; George Allen Young who encouraged 
and helped the production of this book; and 
Coletta Buehner for her assistance with the man¬ 
uscript. 

Acknowledgment is also made to the laboratories 
of The Eastman Kodak Company; Agfa Ansco 
Company; Defender Photo Supply Company, 
Inc., and DuPont Film Manufacturing Company 
for their assistance with the Time-Gamma Tables. 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 


Foreword.. 12 


Chapter One —Photographic Considerations .14 

The Purpose of Technique. Technique and Creative Work. 


Chapter Two —Notes on Photographic Equipment .... 21 

The Studio. Cameras. Cut Film, Roll Film, or Film Packs. Ruling the Ground 
Glass. Exposure Meters. The Dark Room. 


Chapter Three— Lens, Focal Length and Perspective ... 29 

Focal Length in Portraiture. Perspective. True Perspective. Apparent Per¬ 
spective. Practical Applications. Supplemental Lenses. Focusing. Table of 
Hyperfocal Distance. Practical Uses. Experiments in Perspective. 


Chapter Four —Negative Making 


52 


Film Stock. Exposure. Development. Lighting. Negative Density and Gamma. 


Chapter Five —Negative Development .59 

Negative Tone Separation. Classification of Subjects. Time and Gamma 
Tables. Notes on the Time Gamma Tables. Formulas for Developers Recom¬ 
mended in the Gamma Infinity Tables. Developing Roll Films. Fine Grain 
Development. Developing Extremely Long Scale Subjects. Developing Pro¬ 
cedure. Testing New Developers. Experiments in Developing. 


Chapter Six —Selection of Negative Stock .84 

Negative Tone Separation. Contrast and the Selection of Negative Stock. 
Testing New Films. Color and Emphasis. The Theory of Color Mixture. The 
Color Sensitivity of Film Stock. Film and Filter Selection Table. Some Prac¬ 
tical Applications. Questionnaire on Color. Answers to Questionnaire on 
Color. Experiments with Film Stock. 


10 






103 


Chapter Seven —Exposure 

Film Speeds. Exposure Meters. The Functions of Exposure. Estimating Ex¬ 
posure. Subject Contrast. Precautions. Experiments in Exposure. 


Chapter Eight —Light and Lighting .112 

Lighting. Viewing Filters. The Meaning of Lighting. Outdoor Lighting. 
Indoor Lighting. Dramatic Lighting. Mastering Lighting. 


Chapter Nine —Equipment for Enlarging .131 

Diffused or Condensed Illumination. The Enlarger. Contrast Control in En¬ 
larger by Varying the Light Source. Suggestions in Constructing an Enlarger. 
Photometer for Paper Exposures. Calibration of the Photometer. Experi¬ 
ments. 


Chapter Ten —Printing Paper Characteristics .147 

Printing Papers. Testing Paper Speeds. Determining Paper Exposure Scales. 
Determining Paper Scales with a Step Wedge. 


Chapter Eleven —Routine Printing .158 

Proofing. Difficulties in Enlarging. Developers and Development. Paper De¬ 
velopment. Estimating Exposure. Matching the Negative and the Paper. Esti¬ 
mating Exposure Time and Scale without a Photometer. Experiments. 


Chapter Twelve —The Finer Points of Printing ..... 170 

Control of Negative Tones with Chemicals. Control Through Illumination. 
Control by Varying Paper Exposure Scales. Control by Modifying the De¬ 
veloper. Local Control During Printing. Local Control by Dye Staining. 

Local Control with Etchadine. Experiments. 


Chapter Thirteen— Finishing , Mounting and Framing . . . 182 

Spotting the Print. Etching the Print. Mounting. Framing. 


Conclusion 


188 


11 







FOREWORD 


THE PURPOSE OF THIS BOOK 

This is not just another book on photography. It would be an 
entire waste of time to rehash what has been in print for many years. 
Yet in spite of all that has been written, the perfection of technique 
is still the chief worry of most photographers. 

If the average photographer were not hampered with the details 
of technique his pictures would improve immeasurably. He would 
concentrate on pictures themselves, confident of his own ability to 
cope with any scene and any subject. Unhampered by technical de¬ 
tails his imagination would have full play and, therefore, his work 
would be less imitative than it is today. 

It is easy enough to operate the camera to make some sort of 
record of any scene toward which the camera is pointed. It is another 
thing to make the camera record the scene the way in which the 
photographer requires it. 

The purpose of this book is to clear away the confusions and 
prejudices that stand in the way of the photographer’s making the 
camera do his own will, for the camera can make many different 
records of the same scene. Curves, equations and logarithms are all 
very well in their proper place but the masters of photography make 
their pictures with cameras and films, not with logarithms. 

There is not a graph, logarithm or H and D curve here but the 
facts and figures are explained with a series of experiments following 
each chapter to drive home these facts. The experiments are the 
practice necessary to make these facts part of the photographer’s 
usable knowledge. 


12 


If the photographer will perform these simple experiments he 
will realize the part played by each of the important features in 
making a picture. Development, for example, will no longer be all 
important, for the other equally important factors that influence 
negative quality will also be understood and properly respected. 
The photographic process will be viewed as the result of a number 
of balancing features rather than as a series of separate unrelated 
individual steps. 

To the photographer whose goal is the perfection of technique, 
so that any photographic subject can be properly handled without 
guesswork and consequent uncertainty, this book will be a guide. 

The title “Make Your Pictures Sing” comes from the expression 
used by photographers and photo-engravers in describing a tech¬ 
nically perfect piece of work. 


Paul Louis Hexter, A.R.P.S. 


March 1940 
Cleveland, Ohio. 


13 


Chapter One 


PHOTOGRAPHIC CONSIDERATIONS 


There are two general schools of thought in photography—the 
Purist and the Pictorialist. The Purist believes once the shutter is 
snapped the process is photo-mechanical and manual manipulation 
is a violation of the medium. To him the technical part of photog¬ 
raphy is standardized to such an extent that it permits little control 
any time after the picture has been taken. Pictorialists on the other 
hand make little effort to standardize any of their procedures. They 
insert so much flexibility into the process that it sometimes seems 
that their pictures are created after they have the negative just 
because a pleasing arrangement happens to he found. 

The adherents of the extreme views of these schools make the 
mistake of stressing the way in which the photographic process is 
used, rather than looking toward pictures which can be produced by 
photography. Edward Weston stops a lens down to f:256 for the 
ultimate in depth of field and contact-prints all his pictures. (Fig. 1.) 
His methods, however, have little to do with the value of his pictures, 
for others work the same way and produce nothing. Leonard Misonne 
makes sharp negatives but purposely diffuses them, printing in the oil 
process. (Fig. 2.) Diffusion and the oil process are only tools with 
which he works. In themselves they do not make his pictures. It is 
the pictures which must be the ultimate aim of the photographer, not 
the methods by which they are produced. 

In painting Claude Monet believed that outline in nature was an 
illusion appearing only when one color is placed adjacent to another. 


14 



‘Juniper,” Tenaya Lake, 1937 


Edward Weston 


Figure 1 


15 






Therefore, he painted in this fashion. (Fig. 3.) Other painters, such 
as Matisse, believe that form is best suggested through outline, place 
their line on the canvas and paint around it. (Fig. 4.) Both Monet 
and Matisse are men of recognized genius hut it is the finished canvas 
which is the masterpiece, not the particular way in which they applied 
their paint. 

Just as Monet and Matisse work with a blank canvas, a few tubes 
of color and some brushes to produce widely different paintings, so 
Edward Weston and Leonard Misonne use a light-tight box, several 
lenses and an assortment of film to produce photographs which are 
just as far apart. Both strive for the production of a negative which 
will register all the subtle tone gradations of the subject, although 
their presentation of the subject is widely different. 

Here is the end toward which the technique of photography must 
be directed . . . the registering of the maximum number of subtle 
tone gradations in every subject. This is where photography is so 
superior to every other form of art, and, therefore, it is the end 
toward which the technical part of photography must be directed. 

THE PURPOSE OF TECHNIQUE 

The keystone of perfect photographic technique is standardiza¬ 
tion. The entire technical process should be looked upon as a series 
of unchangeable mechanical operations, always performed in the 
same manner and always giving predetermined results. These steps 
can be punctuated here and there with flexible means of control for 
the creative purpose of emphasis, selection and exaggeration. The 
flexibility, however, must never interfere with the standardization 
of procedure. It is obvious that with constant change of film stock, 
a new developer every week, and the search for the chimerical camera 
that always takes good pictures, consistent results are impossible. 

In a chemical laboratory complicated experiments are carried 
out by holding all the steps in the experiments rigidly constant and 
admitting only one variable at a time. As the work continues the 
variables that effect the results favorably become standard procedure 
and eventully the experiment is carried through from beginning to 
end with predetermined knowledge of a successful conclusion. 

The technique of the photographic process is such a laboratory 
experiment. The technique must be conceived so that all the vari- 


16 



“Sa/e Temps” 


Figure 2 


Leonard Misonne 


17 








“Antibes” Claude Monet 

Figure 3 

Courtesy Cleveland Museum of Art 


ables are fully controlled, and preconceived results can be obtained 
for every picture. Subject, exposure, film stock, development and 
printing methods must all be standardized and held rigidly the same. 
It is utter nonsense to change any one part of the photographic 
process unless all the other parts have been held constant. 

The production of fine photographs depends entirely upon the 
subjection of all technical operations to matter-of-fact routine pro¬ 
cedure so that all efforts can he placed on the far more difficult 
problem . . . the picture. The photographer who has standardized 
his procedure and knows his technique will turn out good work with 
almost any camera, any film, and any developer. These are only the 
tools with which he works and are to him as brushes are to a painter. 
Technique by itself means nothing ... it is only the foundation upon 
which the building is constructed. Technique never has been and 
never will be an end in itself. 


18 




“GirZ with Green Eyes” Henri Matisse 

Figure 4 

Courtesy Museum oi Modern Art 


19 







TECHNIQUE AND CREATIVE WORK 


The camera is a small mechanical machine for the recording of 
actuality and nowhere is the domination of the machine over man 
more in evidence. If we continue to let this machine dominate us 
we will worship the mechanized product of the camera. If, on the 
other hand, we dominate the machine, we will use its fundamental 
qualities to create pictures, to express our thoughts and feelings, and 
to create beauty. Great things will be done by the camera if man runs 
the machine but never if the machine runs man. 

Many workers in photography become so involved in the perfec¬ 
tion of their technique they forget creative work entirely. Perfection 
of technique is the essential requirement of creative work in the 
fullness of the photographic medium but it is a means toward an end 
only, not the end in itself. To reach perfection in technique must 
be the goal for everyone but after it has been reached all efforts must 
be concentrated on creative work. 

Photography is a fine art. In the future it will be recognized as 
a great art, for photographers will use the camera to do great things. 
Painting has taken 600 years to achieve its present status and the 
minds of some of the most brilliant men in the past centuries con¬ 
tributed to it. Today men like Moholy-Nagy believe that painting in 
the tradition of the past has outlived its usefulness to our civilization 
primarily because of the development of photography. Photography 
will not require 600 years to arrive but it will require men of genius 
just as painting has done. 


20 


Chapter Two 


NOTES ON EQUIPMENT 


Every photographer collects a miscellaneous assortment of photo¬ 
graphic accessories in his efforts to improve his work. Many of these 
gadgets are discarded shortly after they are acquired. While good 
pictures can be taken with almost any piece of equipment, some 
equipment lends itself more readily to certain types of work. 

Photographic equipment should be accumulated slowly with full 
comprehension of the uses and limitations of each separate article. 
It is much better to buy equipment knowing that it will be constantly 
used, than to spend more than is necessary assuming that some day 
it might be useful. Purchase only what will be regularly used and 
save the balance for something that will be needed in the future. 
Above all, remember it is not the particular camera, or the particular 
lens that makes the pictures. It is the knowledge of pictures, what 
they are, and how to make them that counts. 

THE STUDIO 

A studio of some sort should be available for any serious indoor 
work. The minimum requirements are a room with a nine-foot 
ceiling, a white wall area ten feet wide at one end, and clear working 
space in front of this wall for a distance of at least fifteen feet. Double 
these dimensions make an ideal studio with freedom and ease of 
working assured on all occasions. 

The family living room can always be commandeered as a studio, 
if necessary, and a portable white background can be used. The 
background can be made from a white window shade of suitable 


21 


“Nude” 

Figure 5 

Hollywood Coffin in use. 



width. A studio of this kind, however, entails much furniture moving 
for every picture and is a general nuisance to everyone, including the 
photographer. 

Two accessories for posing are of great value in portraiture. The 
old-fashioned piano stool that can be raised or lowered by turning 
the seat around makes an ideal posing bench. As there is no back 
support, the subject assumes an erect position on being seated and 
once a pose is taken turning from side to side at the direction of the 
photographer is easily accomplished without breaking the pose. 

The other accessory is known as a Hollywood Coffin. This is a 
box six feet long, eighteen inches wide, and thirty inches high made 
from three-fourths inch stock, painted white. The box need not be 
closed in on the back or bottom which makes it lighter and easier to 
move around. It is used as a posing platform, a posing bench, or as 
an accessory in composition. (Figs. 5 and 6.) 

CAMERAS 

The ideal camera for studio work is a reflex. There is a real 


22 






advantage in having the image on the ground glass up to the moment 
of taking the picture and the niceties of composition, as well as the 
appearance of the subject, are easy to observe. There is no particular 
point in using a reflex larger than 3 *4 x 4^4 f° r this work. 

Ordinary cameras with ground glass backs for focusing should 
be avoided because the insertion of film holders before the exposure 
is distracting to both the model and the photographer. The less the 
photographer fusses with his equipment, the more he can concen¬ 
trate on the picture at hand. 

In studio portraiture exposures will range from one-tenth to 
one-half second which requires the placement of the camera on a 
firm, vibrationless tripod. The best tripod will be the cheapest in the 
long run for any slight vibration will ruin the finest picture. Any loss 
of definition in a correctly processed negative, when enlarged, is 
usually due to a slight vibration from an insecure tripod. 

There are two aids to sharpness in portraiture with a reflex that 
can be used to great advantage. Reflex cameras usually show the 


23 













slowest shutter speed at one-tenth second. Exposures as slow as one- 
fourth second are made by setting the curtain at open and pressing 
the mirror lever. The mirror is thrown out of the way and the 
curtain closes at the same time. Operating a reflex in this manner 
often causes vibration. Therefore, a detachable, before-the-lens 
shutter, operated by a cable release is much to be preferred for 
slow portrait exposures. 

Another aid to sharpness with a reflex is a magnifying glass for 
critical focusing. Measure the distance between the top of the hood 
and the ground glass and subtract two inches. Purchase a spectacle 
lens of roughly this focal length.* The lens can be attached to the 
temple of a cheap spectacle frame, the temple cut off at the proper 
distance, and the upper end bent to form a small hook that can be 
hung in one corner of the reflex hood. Critical focusing is easily 
checked on any part of the image with this glass just before the 
picture is taken. 

For outdoor work the 3^ x4^ reflex camera is too bulky, too 
heavy, and reflex focusing is a detriment rather than an asset. When 
a lens is stopped down to f: 16 there is not much of an image on the 
ground glass with which to focus. Focusing with the lens wide open 
and then stopping down is quite awkward. Therefore, the smaller 
roll film cameras are preferred. The ideal combination is to have a 
3% x 4% reflex for studio work and a smaller camera for outdoor 
work. 

The only disadvantage of the roll film camera is the inability to 
use film other than that with which the camera is loaded. Having a 
reflex available, along with a roll film camera gives complete flexi¬ 
bility in equipment and enables the larger camera to be used when 
a change in film stock is indicated. 

CUT FILM , ROLL FILM, OR FILM PACKS 

The film pack is the most convenient and easiest form in which 
to use film. It takes but a second to put a new pack in place and 
successive films are changed with a minimum of commotion, a dis¬ 
tinct advantage when working rapidly, as in portraiture. Roll film 
is next in convenience and has the advantage of being obtainable 


* The focal length of a spectacle lens is measured in diopters. To change the focal length in inches 
into diopters, divide the number of inches into 40. Thus a five inch lens would have a focal length or 
8 diopters. 


24 




almost anywhere, an advantage appreciated when travelling in out- 
of-the-way places. 

Cut film is the least convenient to use because it must be loaded 
individually in the dark room in single or multiple cut film holders. 
This is an annoying nuisance when a lot of work is to be done unless 
one has an assistant to perform this sort of drudgery. The advantage 
of cut film, however, is in the much wider variety of emulsions 
available than in either roll film or film pack, as well as the fact that 
individual shots can be made without going into the dark room with 
an unfinished pack or roll. 

The easiest procedure is to use film pack or roll film for all 
regular work and cut film when special emulsions or one or two shots 
are required. If film packs are purchased 12 at a time the cost is 
about the same as single boxes of cut film. 

RULING THE GROUND GLASS 

The advantage of the reflex camera is that the image is always 
visible on the ground glass up to the minute of exposure. Most 
ground glasses on reflex cameras, particularly on those cameras with 
revolving backs, have a larger area than the actual picture size. This 
causes confusion when the composition of the picture is arranged 
according to the ground glass, as the area of the negative is actually 


25 











less. Therefore, it is advisable to rule guide lines on the ground glass 
limiting the picture area to the size that will be included on the 
negative. 

As a matter of fact it is advisable to rule the ground glass with 
an area slightly less than will be reproduced on the negative. This 
will enable further refinement and arrangement of composition on 
the enlarging easel. With a 3 % x 4% negative, the actual picture 
size is 3 x 4. A satisfactory area to rule on the ground glass in this 
case is 2% x 3%. Additional rulings which aid in composition and 
alignment are made by dividing the area into thirds and ruling 
diagonal lines. (Fig. 7.) 

The ground glass is easily removed from the reflex hood and the 
rulings made with a lead pencil on the ground side of the glass. Care 
should be taken to replace the ground glass with the ground side face 
down as it was originally found. 

EXPOSURE METERS 

An exposure meter of the photoelectric cell type is as essential to 
own as the camera itself. The photographer who guesses at proper 
exposure based on experience tables, or his own estimate of bright¬ 
ness is a waster of film on a large scale. No eye can approach the 
accuracy of a photoelectric cell in gauging the amount of light re¬ 
flected by any subject, or part of a subject. 

In modern photography which places the tone range of the 
subject on a definite portion of the negative scale, exposure must 
be extremely accurate. This can be done most conveniently by using 
an exposure meter of the photoelectric cell type. The scales on these 
instruments giving the relation between exposure time and dia¬ 
phragm setting save much mental labor and prevent the possibility 
of error through inaccurate calculation. The use of an exposure 
meter is not an admission of photographic incompetence but, on 
the contrary, is the only intelligent approach to the entire subject of 
exposure. 

THE DARK ROOM 

Dark rooms are much like the title of the motion picture, “Gold 
Is Where You Find It.” Fortunate indeed is the photographer who 
can have one built to specification instead of utilizing an unused 
basement room. Many good ideas on dark rooms will be found in 


26 


Figure 8 


Figure 9 


“How To Build & Equip a Modern Darkroom” by Barrett & 
Wykoff. 

The double door, common to the commercial photographer’s dark 
room, is no longer necessary. Any ordinary door can be weather 
stripped and made completely light-tight. Any windows in the room 
can be fitted with an inside hinged shutter which is also made light¬ 
tight by weather stripping. (Fig. 8.) 

If possible there should be two water outlets for cold and hot 
water and one of these outlets should be fitted with a mixer faucet 
enabling the temperature of the water to be controlled. If any 
wiring can be done, arrange each safe light on a separate switch and 
control all of them from one place. Put enough base plugs at bench 
height for all apparatus so that continuous plugging in and out is 
not necessary. 










The most convenient place for the contact printer is mounted 
flush with the work bench. (Fig. 9.) Iron brackets strong enough to 
hold it firmly in place can be obtained at any hardware store. Mount¬ 
ing the printer in this fashion gets it out of the way when it is not 
in use, yet at the same time it is always ready. The space under the 
printer is just right to keep a five-gallon bottle of distilled water in a 
carboy frame so it is easily poured. 

Plan as much shelving space as possible. No matter how much 
shelving is in any given darkroom, it is never too much. For cover¬ 
ing floors and counters waxed asphalt tile is best. Black linoleum is 
second best. Alongside the sink a slate counter slab is a great con¬ 
venience. The day of painting the darkroom black is gone. An 
attractive light gray chemical-proof enamel which will not be injured 
by acids, alkalis or photographic chemicals is manufactured by the 
Arco Company, Cleveland, Ohio, or Los Angeles, California, and 
sold under the name of “Chemox.” 

No more than three days after I had moved into a new darkroom 
which I had constructed (Fig. 8), a budding young photographer 
called on me. After looking over a number of prints and carefully 
inspecting the new darkroom he said, “Now if I had a place like 
that I could really do fine things too.” 

The work he had seen, however, was from a make-shift basement 
darkroom similar to thousands of others all over the country. Not 
a picture had been made in the new room. Darkrooms do not make 
pictures. 


28 


Chapter Three 


LENSES, FOCAL LENGTH 
AND PERSPECTIVE 


The modern craving for speed has been exploited by the manu¬ 
facturer of lenses as well as the manufacturers of automobiles. It 
comes from John Q. Public’s belief that speed and efficiency are 
cause and effect; which they undoubtedly are, but within certain 
limits. 

On September 16, 1938, Captain George E. T. Eyston drove his 
“Thunderbolt” racer over the salt flats at Bonneville, Utah, at a 
speed of 357.5 miles per hour. This is faster than any automobile 
had ever been driven before and faster than most people have any 
desire to go in an automobile. Reaching this speed meant a complete 
change of tires after every run. This is speed but at the expense of 
many tires. 

The modern ultra-speed lens is also an example of great speed 
but at the expense of other factors. The untutored photographic 
public believes the best lens is the fastest lens. They reason: the best 
is always the most expensive; fast lenses are most expensive; there¬ 
fore, fast lenses are the best. The mistake is in the premise that the 
best is always the most expensive. It is not always true. 

In considering the purchase of a lens, remember no lens manu¬ 
facturer, as yet, has ever claimed that picture quality improves with 
the speed of the lens. Just as an automobile after a certain point 
loses efficiency with increased speed, so do lenses. Users of high 


29 


speed lenses stop them down for most pictures and, although an f:2 
lens and an f :6.3 lens of the same focal length when stopped down to 
the same stop are theoretically equivalent, the fast lens will often 
have a tendency to lose definition at the smaller stops. 

The disadvantages of speed lenses are excessive cost, some loss of 
definition at smaller stops, and limited depth of field when used wide 
open. The only advantage is speed if you ever need it. Good pic¬ 
tures, however, are seldom taken with insufficient light, even with 
fast lenses. 

That speed lenses have a hahit of losing definition at certain stops 
is not generally known and it is always advisable to test the definition 
of every lens at all stops, before it is purchased. This test is easily 
made by arranging a series of books which have titles printed on 
their covers, across a long table or Hollywood Coffin, with the titles 
fairly well in line. (Fig. 10.) Place the camera as close as possible 
and focus on the middle book. Make an exposure at each aperture, 
increasing the exposure, of course, as the lens is stopped down. An 
examination of the hook titles on the negatives will show at which 
stops definition is lost and those stops should not be used with that 
lens. The test made in Figure 10 proved definition at f: 16 and f :22 
was not so good as fill. The other stops were all satisfactory. So 
stops f: 16 and f:22 should not be used with that lens. 

FOCAL LENGTH IN PORTRAITURE 

The old time professional portrait photographer always used the 
longest focal length lens and the largest aperture his pocketbook 
could stand. Portraits were taken with the narrow plane of the eyes 
and mouth in sharp focus but every other plane out of focus. In¬ 
creasing fuzziness back from the sharp plane of the eyes and mouth 
was supposed to create the illusion of depth. Usually all it accom¬ 
plished was to fuzz up the ears so they looked like bits of old cloth 
tacked on each side of the head. 

Modern portrait negatives require the entire image in sharp focus 
and the illusion of depth is secured by emphasis on modeling rather 
than by out of focus planes. (Frontispiece.) As a lens is stopped 
down the plane in front of the lens in which every object is sharp, 
widens out. In working, the lens is stopped down to f :8, avoiding the 


30 



lack of sharpness caused by insufficient width of the sharp plane in 
front of the camera. 

As long as the focal length of the lens permits a large head to be 
taken with the camera no nearer than four feet from the subject, no 
unavoidable distortion will occur. In a studio of the dimensions 
given, a lens for 3]^ x4% reflex work should have a focal length of 
6l/ 2 to 7 inches and does not need an aperture larger than f:6.3 or 
f :6.8. The focal length for portraiture should be roughly 25% more 
than the diagonal of the film size. While this focal length is recom¬ 
mended for studio work, it will be equally applicable to all outdoor 
work. 

As far as better “drawing” and freedom from distorition in long 
focal length lenses is concerned, this is entirely a matter of the work¬ 
ing distance from the subject, not a special property of the lens. 
Perspective depends entirely on where the lens is placed, not on the 
focal length or angle of view. A 6 ^/ 2 " lens for a 3*4 x 4^4 camera 
would be placed at the same distance from the subject as a 15" lens 
on an 8 x 10 camera. These are fairly long focal length lenses. 

PERSPECTIVE 

The painter in constructing his picture is a builder. Starting with 


31 



a blank canvas, he adds line by line and area by area, creating his 
picture so that all lines harmonize with other lines, all areas har¬ 
monize with other areas, and all elements properly relate in size to 
the canvas and to each other. Thus painting is an addition process. 
If in nature the proportions are not right for the picture size, the 
painter changes them. 

The photographer with his mechanism for recording actuality 
always finds the elements of nature haphazardly arranged. His is 
no step by step process of adding elements to other elements and 
fitting them nicely into a given space. The elements are there before 
his camera. Unimportant, undesirable details must be recorded along 
with desirable, important elements. Picture making for the photog¬ 
rapher is primarily a matter of simplification, reducing a given scene 
to its important elements and eliminating all inconsequential and 
interfering details. It is a process of subtraction. 

Once a photograph has been taken, the photographer has no 
means of altering the forms that make up his picture. The control 
processes give him a means of changing emphasis among the forms 
but the forms themselves are unalterably fixed at the time of ex¬ 
posure. While the photographer cannot transpose objects in the 
scene confronting him, he can change apparent space relations and 
size relations between objects one behind the other. He can propor¬ 
tion the size of his objects to fit best into the area of the film. He can 
keep a central object the same size and include either more or less 
background, or he can keep the background the same and change 
the size of the central object. These changes are made by varying 
the focal length of the lens, changing the point of view, or both, and 
may exert an important influence on the arrangement of any picture. 

The photographic perspective, or the real and apparent size 
relation between objects is determined by: 

(1) True perspective. The distance from the lens to the sub¬ 
ject determines the size relation of objects one behind 
the other. 

(2) Apparent perspective. The angle of view of the lens has 
the apparent effect of changing space relations of objects 
by changing the apparent distance from the camera. 

The easiest way to understand these relationships is by illustra¬ 
tion. 


32 



Figure 11 

The Camera is 4 1 / 2 Feet 
from First Decanter. 


TRUE PERSPECTIVE 



Figure 12 

The Camera is 9 l / 2 Feet 
from First Decanter. 



Figure 13 

The camera is 9 l / 2 f eet from 
the first decanter but a 
longer focal length lens was 
used. Comparing the rela¬ 
tive size of the decanters 
with Figure 12 the perspec¬ 
tive is identical. Apparently, 
however, the picture was 
taken from the same place 
as Figure 11. 


Figure 11 is a photograph of two decanters exactly the same size. 
The decanters are nine inches high and are five feet apart. The first 
decanter seems very close. The second decanter appears one-third its 
size. 

Figure 12 is a second exposure from a viewpoint farther away. 
Both decanters are much smaller but the important point is, the sec¬ 
ond decanter is now two-thirds the size of the first decanter. The 
more distant point of view has changed actual size ratio between the 
decanters from one-third to one, to two-thirds to one. This is true 
perspective. 

Figure 13 is a third exposure made from the same position as in 
Figure 12 but with a longer focal length lens. Again the first decanter 
fills the picture size. Notice, however, that the second decanter is 
now two-thirds the size of the first. The true perspective has not 
changed but the apparent perspective has. The longer focal length 
lens apparently brings the camera closer to the subject but it actually 
keeps the perspective the same. Thus the change is in apparent 
perspective only. If actually you were closer, the true perspective 
would be as in Figure 11. 


33 












APPARENT PERSPECTIVE 

Figure 14 is a house photographed from a distance twice the 
width of the house with a 30° angle lens. This is about the position 
a man would assume observing the house carefully and 30° is the 
natural angle of sight. This photograph, then, represents what the 
average person would see if he were to observe the house. 

Figure 15 is a second exposure from the same place with a lens 
of shorter focal length giving an angle of view of 70°; much larger 
than the natural angle of sight. It appears that the camera has been 
moved further hack. An illusion of space is created. This is apparent 
perspective. Actually the camera was not moved. 

Figure 16 is a third exposure from the same place with a long 
focal length lens. This changes the angle of view to 20°; less than 
the natural angle of sight. Space now appears contracted and the 
camera seems closer. Again the camera was not moved. This illus¬ 
trates apparent perspective. Actual perspective changes only when 
the point of view changes. 

The following conclusions can be drawn regarding photographic 
perspective: 

(1) The difference in size between two objects, one behind 
the other, is determined solely by the point of view. 
The focal length of the lens, angle of view, or degree 
of enlargement, will not change actual size relations 
between two objects. These can be changed only by 
moving closer to or farther away from the subject. 
Therefore, to change the size relationship between two 
objects, one behind the other, the point of view must 
always be changed. 

(2) The size accorded a principal object determines the 
apparent distance from the camera. This is apparent 
perspective and is subject to considerable change by 
varying the angle of view of the lens. A wide angle 
(short focal length) makes the object appear more dis¬ 
tant, a narrow angle (long focal length) makes the object 
appear closer. 

(3) To change apparent perspective or the size of any prin- 
cipal object the focal length of the lens is changed but the 


34 


Figure 14 
7” Lens 3% x 4*4 
Camera 75 Feet from 
the Subject. 


Figure 15 
3U" Lens 3 % * 4% 
Camera 75 Feet from 
the Subject. 


Figure 16 
12” Lens 314, x 4*4 
Camera 75 Feet from 
the Subject. 



35 






















same point of view is taken. To change actual perspec¬ 
tive or the size relationship between two objects , the 
point of view is changed but the same focal length can 
be used. The larger any object is rendered the closer the 
point of view appears to be. In Figure 18 the columns 
are much larger than in Figure 17. The point of view 
appears much closer. Actually Figure 18 was made with 
the camera twice as far from the subject. 

PRACTICAL APPLICATION 

With the principal object of satisfactory size (Fig. 17) a more 
distant viewpoint with a longer focal length lens to keep the principal 
object the same size (Fig. 18) will: 

(1) Decrease the field or amount of subject area covered. 

(2) Give greater prominence to a smaller background area. 

(3) Increase the apparent size of all objects behind the prin¬ 
cipal object. 

(4) Decrease the apparent distance between the principal 
object and background. 

(5) Decrease the apparent distance between the principal 
object and any object behind it. 

(6) Avoid violent perspective. 

With the principal object of satisfactory size (Fig. 17) a closer 
point of view with a shorter focal length lens so the principal object 
remains the same size (Fig. 19) will: 

(1) Increase the field or amount of subject area covered. 

(2) Give less prominence to a larger background area. 

(3) Decrease the apparent size of objects behind the prin¬ 
cipal object. 

(4) Increase the apparent distance between the principal 
object and background. 

(5) Increase the apparent distance between the principal 
object and any object behind it. 

(6) Give violent perspective. 

In practice it is not always possible to select a new point of view 
in relation to the principal object, which, with the focal length lenses 
available, will keep the principal object exactly the same size it was 
originally. The new point of view is determined by the visual per- 


36 



Figure 1 7 Figure 18 Figure 19 

7 " Lens, 3% x 4 x /± Camera, 12” Lens, 3 1 4 x 4 % Camera, 3]/ 2 ” Lens, 3 ]4 x 4 x /4 Camera, 
25 Feet from the Subject. 60 Feet from the Subject. 11 Feet from the Subject. 

Keeping the principal object the same size but changing background areas. 


spective of the scene, comparing the actual size relationships between 
the principal object and the secondary object. When the point of 
view is determined, the picture is taken with a lens of the proper 
focal length. If an extremely long focal length is required and not 
available a further increase in the size of the principal object is 
secured in enlarging. Taken from the same point of view, and 
enlarged to the same size, a print made with a normal focal length 
lens is identical to a print made with a long focal length lens. 

The apparent change in perspective achieved with lenses of 
different focal lengths, from the same camera viewpoint, will make 
wide differences in the linear composition of certain scenes, although 
the fundamental law is that perspective does not change unless the 
camera position changes. The effect on the linear composition of 
certain subjects can be very marked. 

In Figures 14, 15 and 16, all made from the same camera position, 
the only effect is one of progressively moving closer to the subject. 
This is because the principal object is in one plane parallel to the 
camera. There are no lines converging in the distance. 

In Figures 20 and 21 where parallel lines are converging, the 
entire linear composition of the scene is changed. Apparently the 
perspective has changed but actually it is the same as is proven by 


37 

















Changing converging parallels 
from the same viewpoint. 


Figure 20 

7" Lens 3% x 4Vi Camera 


Figure 21 

3 1 / 4" Lens, Same Camera, 
Viewpoint as Fig. 20 


Figure 22 

Enlargement of Fig. 21 to the 
Exact Size of Fig. 20 


38 













Figure 23 

71 / 2 " Lens, 3 1 /, x 4 % 
Camera. 


Figure 24 

3 ^" Lens, Same Camera, 
Viewpoint as Fig. 23. 


Figure 25 

Enlargement of Fig. 24 to 
the Exact Size of Fig. 23. 


Changing the shape of a receding curve from the same viewpoint. 



Fig. 22. When the illusion of depth is created in a picture by lines 
converging toward the horizon a great increase in depth can be 
achieved with a shorter focal length lens. 

In Figures 23 and 24 dealing with curves receding out of the 
picture area, again the linear structure of the composition can be 
changed. Curved lines can apparently be made to curve more or less 
as is required. Fig, 25 proves that the actual perspective has not 
changed although the effect of the entire composition is different. 
These changes in composition with long and short focal length lenses 
cannot be properly visualized just by observing the scene from the 
camera viewpoint. A ground glass in the camera is absolutely 
necessary. 

These facts of perspective in relation to the position of the camera 
and the focal length of the lens should be thoroughly familiar to 
every camera user for without these facts as part of your technique 
many opportunities for the improvement of pictures will be lost. 
Instances where this knowledge is a great asset occur daily in the life 
of every photographer and for the purpose of clarity and emphasis 
the facts of these practical applications are restated in somewhat 
different form. 

(1) An increase of image size accomplished by the use of a 
longer focal length lens is always accompanied by a 
decrease of field. Compare Figs. 15 and 16. 


3 ? 




Figure 26 

Short Focal Length Lens Close to 
Principal Object, Lens. 


Figure 27 

Long Focal Length Lens Away from Prin¬ 
cipal Object, 12" Lens, 3]4 x 4% Camera, 
Distance about 70 Feet. 


Keeping background area the same size while changing the size of the foreground 

object. 


(2) A decrease of field always means an increase in the image 
size of any object in the field. Compare Figs. 17 and 18. 

(3) An increase of field always means a decrease in the image 
size of any object in the field. Compare Figs. 17 and 19. 

(4) To increase the size of background objects (decrease the 
field) keeping foreground objects the same size, use a 
longer focal length lens and a more distant viewpoint. 
Compare Figs. 17 and 18. 

(5) To decrease the size of background objects (increase the 
field) keeping foreground objects the same size, use a 
shorter focal length lens and a closer viewpoint. Com¬ 
pare Figs. 17 and 19. 

(6) To increase the size of a foreground object keeping the 
background objects the same size, use a shorter focal 
focal length lens and a closer viewpoint. Compare Figs. 
26 and 27. 

(7) To reduce the size of a foreground object keeping the 


40 



































Figure 28 Figure 29 

7" Lens, 3\i x 4 \4 Camera, 5 Feet from 3 1 4" Lens, 3 1 4 s 4*4 Camera, 20 Inches 

Subject. from Subject. 

Violent Perspective. The poses are identical. 

background objects the same size, use a longer focal 
length lens and a more distant viewpoint. Compare Figs. 
27 and 26. 

(8) To avoid violent perspective, use a longer focal length 
lens and a more distant viewpoint. Conversely a short 
focal length lens and a near viewpoint will produce 
violent perspective. Compare Figs. 28 and 29. 

(9) To include more of the subject without changing per¬ 
spective use a shorter focal length lens from the same 
viewpoint. Compare Figs. 14 and 15. 

(10) To include less of the subject without changing perspec¬ 
tive use a longer focal length lens and the same view¬ 
point. Compare Figs. 14 and 16. 

SUPPLEMENTAL LENSES 

To take advantage of the possibilities for better picture arrange¬ 
ment in varying focal lengths of lenses, it is not necessary to own five 
or six lenses. Supplementary lenses can be purchased at small cost 


41 







from the photographic supply houses. For example, George Murphy, 
Inc., New York, N. Y., sells a set of four lenses 2" in diameter for 
$7.50. 

This particular set used with a 1" lens gives the following varia¬ 
tions : 



Focal 

Angle of 

Units of 


Length 

View 

Exposure 

Regular Lens 

7" 

40° 

1 

Plus Supplement 1 

4" 

70° 

2 stops faster 

Plus Supplement 2 

5%" 

58° 

1 stop faster 

Plus Supplement 3 

10" 

30° 

1 stop slower 

Plus Supplement 4 

15" 

20° 

2 stops slower 

The holder that comes 

with these 

supplementary 

lenses is usually 


unsatisfactory for permanent use. It is suggested that Eastman round 
filter holders of the proper size be used for lens mountings. 

In order to find out how the supplementary lenses affect the focal 
length and f: numbers of a regular lens, it is necessary to know the 
focal length of the supplementary lens. This usually does not come 
with the lens and the easiest way to find it is to have an optician 
measure it. He has a little instrument which measures the curvature 
of the glass and a chart which translates the readings into inches of 
focal length. 

In calculating focuses, a convex radius is prefixed by a plus sign 
( + ) and a concave radius is prefixed by a minus sign (—). The 
optician will tell you whether the focal length has a plus or a minus 
prefix. 

To find the combined focal length where fi is the focal length of 
the regular lens and fs is the focal length of the supplementary lens, 

use 

fi X fg 

fi + f 2 

This assumes the lenses are close together. If there is any separa¬ 
tion use 

V 1 V where s is the separation. 

Il -f- Io - S 

In working the above formulas, when multiplying or dividing 
quantities whose signs are alike the answer is always plus. When mul- 


42 







tiplying or dividing quantities with opposite signs, the answer is al¬ 
ways minus. When adding and subtracting take the sign of the largest 
number. 

For example, suppose a regular lens has a focal length of 7" and 
it is combined with a supplementary leins with a focal length of—26" 

Combined Focal Length = |~j~^ ^ | o'6) = 1 9 or 

To find the alteration in f: numbers of the combined focal lengths, 
multiply the new focal length by the original f: number and divide 
the product by the original focal length. For example, using the above 
lens at f :8 multiply 9.5 x 8 which is 76. Divide by 7, the original focal 
length, and the answer is 11. So the stop alters from f:8 to fill. 
This combination will always be one stop slower than the original 
lens. 

An easy way of finding the approximate angle of view of a lens, 
or the combination of lens and supplementary lens is to use Fig. 30. 


43 

































The angle of view of a lens is the angle of the cone of light pro¬ 
ceeding from the lens back to the film encircling the film. The width 
of this cone at the film is equal to the diagonal of the film. The dis¬ 
tance from the lens back to the film, when the lens is focused on 
infinity, is the focal length of the lens. 

In using supplementary lenses, those which increase the focal 
length will require less bellows extension for a given magnification if 
used behind the original lens rather than in front of it. All supple¬ 
mentary lenses should be used at stop f :16 or at smaller stops to re¬ 
tain sharpness and definition. 

FOCUSING 

With most subjects focusing is not much of a problem. There is 
usually a principal object which is to be rendered sharply and focus¬ 
ing with a ground glass, coupled range finder, or distance scal^ is 
simple. 

Some times, however, there are objects close to the camera which 
must be rendered sharply along with sharp backgrounds, and it is 
necessary to know the exact depth of field or width of the plane in 
front of the lens in which all objects are in sharp focus. 

If a lens is focused sharply on infinity the nearest object in sharp 
focus is said to be at the hyperfocal distance. If the lens is now focused 
on this object everything will be sharp from half the hyperfocal dis¬ 
tance to infinity. 

If the hyperfocal distance for any particular focal length and 
stop is not in the table it can be calculated from the formula 

f 

H = 1000- 

s 

where f is the focal length and s is the lens stop. Thus the hyperfocal 
distance of a 6-inch lens at stop fill is 

H = 1000 = 555 inches or approximately 46 feet. 

PRACTICAL USES 

(1) If a lens is focused on the hyperfocal distance everything 
is in sharp focus from *4 th e hyperfocal distance to in¬ 
finity. Thus a 6-inch lens focused at 46 feet will have 
everything in sharp focus from 23 feet to infinity. 


44 


Table of Hyper focal Distances in Feet* 


Focal 

Length 

Inches 

f:2 

f :2.8 

f :3.5 

f :4.5 

f :5.6 

f :6.3 

f:8 

f: 11 

f: 16 

f :22 

f :32 

f :45 

f :64 

2 

84 

60 

47 

37 

30 

26 

21 

15 

11 

8 




2 Vi 

105 

75 

58 

47 

38 

33 

27 

19 

14 

10 




3 

126 

89 

71 

56 

45 

39 

32 

23 

16 

12 

7 



3 Vi 

147 

104 

83 

65 

53 

46 

37 

26 

19 

13 

9 



4 

168 

119 

92 

75 

60 

52 

42 

30 

21 

15 

10 

7.4 


4 Vi 

189 

134 

105 

84 

68 

59 

48 

34 

24 

17 

11 

8 


5 

209 

149 

119 

93 

75 

66 

53 

38 

27 

19 

13 

9 

6.5 

5 Vi 


163 

130 

103 

82 

72 

58 

41 

29 

21 

14 

10 

7 

6 

- 

178 

142 

112 

89 

78 

63 

45 

32 

23 

15 

11 

7.8 




154 

121 

97 

85 

69 

49 

35 

25 

17 

12 

8.5 

7 



168 

130 

104 

92 

74 

52 

37 

26 

18 

13 

9 

7 Vi 




138 

111 

99 

78 

56 

39 

28 

19 

14 

10 

8 




146 

119 

105 

83 

60 

41 

30 

20 

15 

10 

8 Vi 




156 

126 

110 

88 

64 

43 

32 

22 

15.5 

11 

9 




166 

133 

117 

93 

68 

46 

34 

23 

16.5 

11.5 

9 Vi 




174 

140 

123 

97 

72 

48 

36 

24 

17.5 

12 

10 




182 

146 

129 

101 

75 

51 

38 

25 

18.4 

13 


* Based on a circle of confusion of 1/100 inch. It is generally agreed that a disc of 1/100 inch 
viewed from 10 inches is indistinguishable from a point. 


(2) Prepare a table for each lens or combination of lenses 
and supplementary elements as follows: 

Divide the hyperfocal distance of the lens wide open by 
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 
19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, in succession. 

For example: 

A 7" lens at stop f :4.5 has a hyperfocal distance of 130'. 
Dividing 130 by 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. up to 30 gives the follow¬ 
ing series: 


45 








































































































































































































130 Divided by. . . 

Equals. . . 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

130 

65 

43.3 

32.5 

26 

21.6 

18.5 

16.2 

14.4 

13 

130 Divided by. . . 

Equals. . . 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

11.8 

10.8 

10 

9.2 

8.6 

8.1 

7.6 

7.2 

6.8 

6.5 

130 Divided by . . . 

Equals. .. 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

6.2 

5.9 

5.6 

5.4 

5.2 

5 

4.8 

4.6 

4.4 

4.3 


When focusing on any one of these distances with the lens wide 
open, the focus extends one step each side. Thus with the lens focused 
at 5 feet at f :4.5 focus extends from 4.8 feet to 5.2 feet. 

When the stop is multiplied by 2 the focus extends two steps on 
each side. Thus f :4.5 multiplied by 2 is F:9. Focused on 5 feet at f :9 
focus extends from 4.6 feet to 5.4 feet. 

Multiply the stop by 3 and the focus extends three steps on each 
side, etc. 

(3) Prepare a second chart for each lens and combination of 
lenses and supplementary elements for focusing as fol¬ 
lows: 

On a plain sheet of paper rule 25 steps down ^4 inch 
apart. Number them in fives from 0 to 125. Locate the 
various hyperfocal distances for each stop from the table 
on page 45. Calculate any steps that may not he in this 
table. In the illustration stops are located for a 6" lens. 
From the point zero locate 20 steps across 3/16" apart. 
Number these steps from 1 to 20. From point 20 measure 
down 2". Draw a line connecting this new point with 0. 
Number this new line from 1 to 20. There are now two 
points on line 20. Locate the point in the center and draw 
a line from this point to zero. The chart should look like 
Figure 31. 

Suppose a subject like the decanters (Fig. 11) is to be taken: 
the first decanter is 3 feet from the lens and the second decanter is 
8 feet away. Placing a ruler on the farther point, 8 feet, and the 
nearer point, 3 feet, shows according to the dotted line that the lens 
should he focused at 4.5 feet and stop f :64 should be used. 

While these charts may take an evening’s work to compile, they 
are well worth the effort. 


46 
























0 

5 

10 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

55 

60 

65 

70 

75 

50 

65 

90 

95 

100 

105 

110 

115 

120 

125 



■f:8 


The dotted Une *kthat t&a. one 
Gtrjedt Ijlyeen. |y£et L/iom the lerv> and. 
another otjject eiqht [z*L j/iom. Len/i,, 
on tm and. &n£hol(j lyeetanrt 
4 tc?p clown. to 16. 


IheAe chaAi/> AhouJLd be wonhed out 
f:6.3 (jOn. cJUL lenAeb and. comWua.ti£rriA- 
unth. AupplementtL^ LenAe5. 

f Stop* \sxxted.\ s ^6'' \-.4.5 lenA. 

1:3,6 cjccondmq to- taUe ol hJLjpeajyOcad 
cL^tanjceA. . SeveacJl leriAeA am, 
be Located. on the oame dirham.. 


f:4.5 


IcUe-Miqcje^ted bij G J.ftbruxnxx. 


jaJj&coL cUAtanjceA in. |jeet. 


Figure 31 


47 






























When in doubt as to where to focus, and charts and calculations 
are not available, select a point one-third of the distance beyond the 
nearest object. Focus and stop the lens down as much as possible. 

EXPERIMENTS IN PERSPECTIVE 

(1) Decreasing the field 

Select a scene with a principal object in the foreground 
against a rather large background. Make one exposure. 
Now make a second negative decreasing the field of the 
background but keeping the principal object the same 
size. 

A satisfactory subject would be a full-length figure well 
out from your house. Select a point of view so the figure 
occupies most of the picture area and stop the lens down 
so both the figure and the house will be sharp. Make the 
exposure. Drop back eight feet and with a longer focus 
lens make a second exposure. 

Print the first negative so the figure occupies most of the 
picture. Enlarge the second negative if necessary so the 
figure is the same size. In comparing the two prints the 
figures are the same size but notice what has happened 
to the background. You have decreased the field. 

Notice that you have also: 

(a) Given greater prominence to a smaller back¬ 
ground area. 

(b) Increased the size of all objects immediately 
behind the principal object. 

(c) Decreased the apparent distance between the 
principal object and the background. 

(2) Increasing the field 

A satisfactory scene for the following pictures would he 
a farm house surrounded by a fence, the picture to he 
taken through an open gate. Take one picture with a 
regular lens showing both sides of the gate and the farm 
house framed by it. 

With a shorter focal length lens move up closer to the 
gate, keeping the sides of the gate framing the picture 
and make a second exposure. 


48 


Print the first picture so the gate frames the farm house. 
Print the second picture so the gate is the same size as 
in the first picture. Compare the two prints and notice 
what has happened to the farm house. You have in¬ 
creased the field. 

Notice also that you have: 

(a) Given less prominence to a larger amount of 
background area. 

(h) Decreased the apparent size of the house. 

(c) Increased the apparent distance between the 
house and the gate. 

(3) Changing the apparent distance from the camera 
Make three exposures of your own home from the same 
point of view using a regular lens, a long focus lens and 
a wide angle lens, or their equivalents with supple¬ 
mentary lenses. 

Which picture seems closest to the camera? Which seems 
to be farther away? 

(4) Overcoming violent perspective 

Pose a model about three feet in front of your camera 
with one hand six inches in front of the face and just 
to one side. Make the exposure. Make a print with the 
head filling almost the entire picture area. 

Move back six feet and with a longer focal length lens 
make a second exposure. Enlarge this negative to the 
same size as the original print. Notice the violent per¬ 
spective will be corrected by moving back from the sub¬ 
ject and using a lens of longer focal length. 

(5) Increase of image size 

Pose a model in front of your own home about 20 feet 
out from the background. Make one exposure with a 
normal focal length lens. Then make a second exposure 
from the same camera position with a longer focal length 
lens to increase the size of the principal image. Notice 
the decrease in the background area (field) always ac¬ 
companied by an increase in the size of the principal 
image. 


49 


(6) Decrease of image size 

Make a third exposure of the same subject in Experi¬ 
ment 5 from the same camera position but with a short 
focal length lens to decrease the size of the principal 
image. Compare with the exposure made with the nor¬ 
mal lens and notice that a decrease in the size of the 
principal image is always accompanied by an increase 
in the size of the field. 

(7) Increasing the size of the background 

With the same subject, a model in front of your home, 
make a normal exposure with a normal focal length lens 
and note the size of the principal object on your ground 
glass. (This is easy if the ground glass is ruled accord¬ 
ing to instructions on page 26.) Make a second exposure 
with a short focal length lens moving the camera closer 
until the principal object is approximately the same size 
on the ground glass. The size of the principal object is 
the same in both cases but the field has been greatly 
increased by moving closer with a short focal length lens. 

(8) Decreasing the size of the background 

Make a third exposure of the subject in Experiment 7, 
this time with a long focal length lens, moving the camera 
position back from the principal object until the princi¬ 
pal object is again the same size on the ground glass as 
in the first exposure. Again the size of the principal 
object is the same but the size of the background is 
vastly decreased. Compare these prints and observe the 
changes in the composition of the picture made by modi¬ 
fying the background size. 

(9) Keeping the background the same size but decreasing 
the size of the principal object 

Again with the same subject, a model in front of your 
home, make a normal exposure with a normal focal 
length lens. Notice on the ground glass the borders of 
the background. Make a second exposure with a long 
focal length lens, moving the camera position hack from 
the principal object until the background borders are 


the same as in the first exposure. While the background 
remains the same size the principal object has decreased 
in size and, therefore, in importance. 

(10) Keeping the background the same size but increasing the 
size of the principal object 

Make a third exposure with a short focal length lens, 
moving closer to the principal object until the back¬ 
ground borders are again the same as in Experiment 9. 
The principal object increases in size and importance 
while the background remains the same. 

(11) Including more or less of the subject from the same 
camera viewpoint 

Select a landscape scene and make three exposures from 
the same camera position with a normal, long and short 
focal length lens. Compare the three pictures. Notice 
that a short focal length lens includes much more of the 
scene while a long focal length lens includes much less 
of the scene. 

(12) Make the same experiment on a scene with parallel lines 
converging in the distance as well as on a scene with 
curved lines going out of the picture area. 

The relationship between the focal length of the lens and camera 
position for a given result will be easily understood if all these ex¬ 
periments are made. Nothing teaches one so well as doing it your¬ 
self. Make all these experiments and then reread this chapter. What 
may sound complicated and obscure will then become child’s play. 
The obvious chance to improve the composition of any picture is 
too good to pass up. 


51 


I 


Chapter Four 

NEGATIVE MAKING 


In 1906 George Bernard Shaw, then an amateur photographer, 
wrote, “Technically good negatives are more often the result of the 
survival of the fittest, than of special creation; the photographer is 
like a cod, which produces a million eggs in order that one may reach 
maturity.” 

Today, modern emulsions, photoelectric cell exposure meters for 
measuring light, and the great advance in technical knowledge make 
the million negatives unnecessary. However, many photographers 
still rely more on the laws of chance than on the principles which 
govern negative making in taking their pictures. 

For many serious photographers the entire subject of negative 
making is a vast confusion of statements and contradictions. The sub¬ 
ject is all mixed up. Books and periodicals serve only to add to the 
confusion for they tend to be too technical or overly simple. Probably 
the greatest delusion under which many photographers labor is in 
the field of development and developers. There is a great supersti¬ 
tion abroad that some new developer formula will be the long sought 
answer to the production of perfect photographs. Like the magic 
words, “Open, Sesame!” some photographers expect the same results 
by saying, “Metol, Hydroquinone and p—Hydroxyphenylglycin”. 

Taking a few well known names at random it is found that Ed¬ 
ward Steichen pronounces the words, “Metol, straight metol” to get 
his pictures. Edward Weston says “D-l Pyro”. Charles Kerlee says 
“Pyro-acetone” to his negatives. Ansel Adams waves his wand over 


52 


a developing tank and pronounces the same magic words as Edward 
Weston. William Mortensen uses a choice of two cabalistic phrases, 
one being D-l Pyro and the other Metol-borax. Moholy-Nagy finds 
all the magic necessary printed on the instructions that come with 
the film. 

The technique of these and all other successful workers is not 
due to the magic words in ordering their chemicals, or the way they 
put these symbols in use. That a number of different formulas are 
used by successful workers is well known, and this is evidence in 
itself that there is no one cabalistic combination used exclusively by 
the inner circle of famous photographers. These men are the 
Merlins of photography. The secret password to their group is 
KNOWLEDGE , not paraphenylene-diamine. As a matter of fact any 
good photographer can take any formula, as long as it will develop, 
and adapt it to his own work. 

A negative is influenced by four factors: 

(1) Lighting 

(2) Exposure 

(3) Film Stock 

(4) Development 

The importance of the proper negative for successful picture 
making cannot be over-emphasized. It is utterly foolish to attempt 
a fine picture from a poor negative. It just cannot be done. No one 
of the above four factors is more important than the other and ideal 
negative quality is the product of all four factors properly related, 
not just one factor alone. 

Ideal negative quality, or the perfect negative, is a concept that 
requires clear definition, for in photography one man’s perfect nega¬ 
tive is another man’s anathema. Here lies the basis for much exist¬ 
ing confusion. The miniature negative, the negative for normal 
enlarging, the negative for contact printing, the professional por¬ 
trait negative, the commercial negative, the press negative and the 
average snap-shot negative are all different strains of the same breed. 
It follows that a negative achieves perfection only when it gives the 
kind of picture required; not because it fulfills certain scientific 
measurements or fits certain arbitrary standards. 

Often formulas and dissertations on negative processing appear 
in the photographic press unaccompanied by illustrations of the “be- 


53 


fore and after” kind. It is always well to question statements on any 
photographic subject unless there is accompanying proof in the form 
of pictures. Much time can be wasted, as all successful photographers 
well know, searching the bypaths for an answer that lies along the 
main highway. 

The characteristics of a perfect negative are: 

(1) Maximum number of tones allowed by subject matter. 

(2) Separation of tones to the maximum extent consistent 
with the type of subject. 

(3) Density suited to the method of printing. 

(4) Grain permitting the required degree of enlargement. 

These characteristics are produced only by the proper correla¬ 
tion of lighting, film stock, exposure and development. To check your 
own procedures and take stock of your usable working knowledge 
(some photographers know their facts but do not put them into prac¬ 
tice) quiz yourself on the following: 

FILM STOCK 

(1) How do you determine the relationship in which the 
subject tones are to be rendered? Do you select film 
stock according to a predetermined knowledge of the 
way it registers tones, or do you let the tones register as 
they will on the film that is on hand? 

(2) Do you make use of the color sensitive properties of 
emulsions? Do you ever use film stock to emphasize or 
subdue dominant color tones according to the subject 
matter, or do you use panchromatic film on all subjects 
because sensitivity to all colors offhand makes it seem 
better for general use? 

(3) Do you change film stock between long and short scale 
subjects? 

(4) Do you use “Portrait Film” for portraiture, or do you 
let the method of lighting determine the film stock? 

EXPOSURE 

(5) Do you use a photoelectric cell exposure meter to meas¬ 
ure light value or do you depend on experience and guess 
at the correct exposure? 


54 


(6) Do you arbitrarily use the readings of the meter or do 
you use these readings to guide you in determining the 
density of the negative? 

(7) Do you use the meter on both ends of a long scale sub¬ 
ject to determine which end of the tone scale is to be 
dropped? 

DEVELOPMENT 

(8) Do you believe that one certain developer is far superior 
to all others, or can you make any number of developers 
do your work? 

(9) Do you develop according to some arbitrary time and 
temperature hoping that the tone ratio will represent the 
subject in a satisfactory manner, or do you develop with 
a predetermined idea of making the tone ratio greater, 
the same, or less than the subject? 

LIGHTING 

(10) Do you shoot outdoor scenes with whatever light hap¬ 
pens to be around, or do you wait at times for the light 
to change? 

(11) In studio work do you pattern your lighting set-up 
after some diagram or other, or have you worked out 
your own system of distance, angles, and intensities to 
register the complete tone gradation of any subject with 
your own equipment? 

(12) Are you positive you can get maximum tone separation 
if you want it? 

THE NEGATIVE FOR ENLARGING 

While negatives for professional portrait, commercial work, or 
press photography each have their own special requirements, gen¬ 
erally speaking they are made for contact printing. The production 
of a negative for enlarging which, when printed, will have “contact” 
quality is far more critical. 

The latitude in the exposure of photographic film has been often 
demonstrated by exposing the average outdoor scene normally and 
making additional negatives with up to ten times normal exposure 


55 


and one-tenth normal exposure. The contact prints all look very 
much alike showing the great latitude that exists in exposure.* 

This latitude, however, exists only in contact work. If these same 
negatives which give similar results when contact printed were all 
enlarged, some of the negatives would be unprintable and others, 
while printable, would not have “contact” quality. Only a few would 
enlarge properly. The latitude in negative making which is present 
when negatives are contact printed shrinks materially when negatives 
are produced for enlarging. 

While there are many types of negatives which will give adequate 
contact prints, there is only one kind of negative which when enlarged 
will give full quality. This is a negative which, neither too thin nor 
too dense, is full bodied with all tones sharply distinguished. Such 
a negative permits enlargement up to the appearance of grain without 
losing sharpness or tone gradation. If too thin, it is underexposed. 
If too dense, it does not retain full quality on enlarging although it 
will give a satisfactory contact print. Figure 65 is a routine print 
from a proper negative. 

The first factor in arriving at a standardized working procedure 
is development. Film stock is selected to go along with development 
and then lighting and exposure are standardized in their proper re¬ 
lationship. As the production of the negative for enlarging is so 
critical, the standardized procedure must be followed from beginning 
to end. There is no room for guesswork with subsequent manipula¬ 
tions, variations, and compensations in the dark room. When you 
work with enlarged prints, once the shutter is snapped, you have 
definitely determined whether the negative is as it should be. If 
wrong, reducers, intensifiers and other tricks will never make it right. 

NEGATIVE DENSITY AND GAMMA 

To most photographers negative density and contrast are like 
“Mike and Ike—they look alike.” The terms are used interchange¬ 
ably as if they were synonymous yet they are far removed in meaning. 

Gamma, the much used word in photographic parlance, is still 
a Greek word to most photographers. It actually is a numerical 
symbol that describes the extent of development but often is asso¬ 
ciated with the visual density contrast or visual appearance of the 
negative. 

* (See “Photography” by Mees, page 104 plate 22) 


56 



Developed to a gamma of 1. (unity), a negative registers the tones 
in the same ratio as the subject. Development to less than unity reg¬ 
isters the tones with a lesser ratio. Development to more than unity 
registers the tones with a larger ratio. Thus gamma is only a measure 
of tone separation between subject and negative. 

Visually gamma cannot be seen. It is a scientific measurement. 
What you do see is visible tone contrast produced by density. 

Negatives developed to a gamma of .8 have less tone contrast 
than the original subject. This is just a direct comparison between 
negative tones and subject tones. Negatives developed to a gamma of 
.8 will vary widely in visual appearance for the eye judges density 
contrasts only. It cannot make a comparison between tone separa¬ 
tion of subject and negative. Dense negatives or thin negatives, con¬ 
trasty negatives or soft negatives, all can be produced with like 
gammas. 

So, thinking about development, it becomes obvious that the 
function of development is to register subject tones on the negative— 
in the same ratio—wider apart, or closer together. Density contrasts, 
heaviness or thinness, are not the products of development, although 
a film must be developed before these characteristics exist. Heaviness 
or thinness is produced by exposure and density contrasts are pro¬ 
duced by the type of film. 

Making all negatives enlarge properly regardless of the kind of 
subject is not as difficult as it may appear, provided each of the factors 
that influence negative quality is made to exert its influence at the 
proper time and not manipulated to compensate for guess work or 
errors. For example, developing a negative beyond what is necessary 
for the desired ratio of all tones on the negative will, of course, pro¬ 
duce a heavier negative looking at it visually. But if the negative is 
thin to begin with the proper way to make it heavier is by exposure 
and not by juggling with tone ratios. Or, if the printing contrast of 
the negative is not correct for the type of subject, the way to correct 
this is in the use of proper film stock, not by manipulating develop¬ 
ment times. 

There is no one film stock, one developer, nor one exposure sys¬ 
tem with which it is possible to always produce full quality negatives 
for enlarging. But by intelligent selection of various photographic 


57 


materials and understanding the different factors which influence 
negative quality, there is no reason why negatives of the highest 
quality cannot be produced every time a picture is taken. 

Standardized procedure in producing negatives for enlarging 
requires that development be predetermined by the tone separation 
of the subject. Minimum full exposure is then keyed to this by using 
the highest Weston rating. This insures a thin but full bodied nega¬ 
tive. Film stock is selected according to the work at hand, as a soft, 
medium or hard negative is wanted. It is when the functions that 
influence the negative are misused or overworked and allowed to 
wander around haphazardly that trouble begins. Expedients such as 
twice normal exposure will not compensate for soft negative stock, 
nor will longer developing time make up for lack of exposure. Such 
haphazard work will never produce negatives which will enlarge 
properly. 

The making of a negative is greatly simplified if definite func¬ 
tions are assigned to each of the factors that effect negative quality. 

(1) The function of lighting is, therefore, to separate the 
tones of the subject. 

(2) The function of development is, therefore, to separate 
subject tones to a greater, lesser, or the same degree in 
the negative. (Gamma.) 

(3) The function of film stock is, therefore, to record all of 
the subject tones in printable densities. (Density con¬ 
trast.) 

(4) The function of exposure is, therefore, to place the tones 
on the film using selected densities. (Heaviness or thin¬ 
ness.) 

The following chapters will cover thoroughly each of these func¬ 
tions and if at all times each function is considered separately and 
apart from its obvious relation to the others, negative making is 
greatly simplified. Using development only as a control of the tone 
separation between subject and negative is a far easier approach 
than the usual juggling of development, trying to compensate and 
adjust for inaccuracies in the other factors that influence the negative. 


58 


Chapter Five 


NEGATIVE DEVELOPMENT 


Although films must be developed before they become negatives 
the characteristics of a good negative are only partially due to de¬ 
velopment. In a recent lecture a well known worker advised all 
photographers to double the reading of the exposure meter and 
halve the developing time. Another advocates a minimum of ex¬ 
posure with a developing time of an hour and one-half. Still other 
instructions come with films calling for development for a specific 
length of time at a certain temperature. What is the right time— 
the manufacturer’s time, half this time, or an hour and one-half? 

In addition to this confusion regarding the time of development, 
there is confusion as to the best methods of developing which are 
described in hooks and periodicals. There is development by inspec¬ 
tion ; by time and temperature; by dilution of the developer; by the 
factorial method; by the water bath system;* and by dividing the 
developer.** Confusion, confusion, and more confusion. There are 
an indefinite number of complicated ways to do an extremely simple, 
mechanical operation. Development becomes complicated only when 
its function is not clearly understood. Once it is decided to use de¬ 
velopment only to fix the ratios between tones of the subject and 
the negative, and not to determine visual negative contrast, develop¬ 
ment becomes an affair of minor importance in the life of any 
photographer. 

* B. J. Almanac 1932, Page 181, Knapp System. 

** Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers, Vol. XXI, July, 1933, Page 21. 


59 



An exposed negative, placed in a developing solution, has been 
likened to an automobile race between many cars of large and small 
horsepower having various quantities of gasoline in their gas tanks. 
The race begins at the base of a wall and an observer, behind the 
wall, anxiously looks out over it waiting for the cars to come in view. 

The first car to appear represents the first highlight tone of the 
subject. It is a high-powered car with a full gas tank. The last car 
to come into view is the lowest shadow tone of the subject. It is a 
car of small horsepower with very little gas in its tank. Between 
them are all the other cars of various horsepowers, some having full 
gas tanks, and others having tanks almost empty, representing all 
the half-tone values of the subject. 

The observer can watch the race until all the cars are out of 
gas and the race is finished, or he can stop the race at any time before 
all cars have travelled as far as they might go. If the race is allowed 
to continue until all the entries have run out of gas, the maximum 
possible tone separation is achieved. Stopping the race at any point 
before this lessens the distance between all cars hut in no way 
changes the cars around. 

The tones of an exposed negative placed in a developing solu¬ 
tion gain in density for a definite period of time only. Beyond this 
time there is no further development and fogging begins. The point 
of this maximum gain in tone separation is known as gamma infinity 
and it varies with each make of film and each developer. With some 
developers the period of fogging begins immediately after gamma 
infinity is reached. With others, particularly fine grain developers, 
fogging does not take place until several hours after development 
stops. 

NEGATIVE TONE SEPARATION 

The function of development is to control the ratio in which 
tones of the subject are separated in the negative. These tones can¬ 
not be changed around any more than the cars in the automobile 
race. The low-powered cars with small amounts of gas in their gas 
tanks are never going to forge ahead of the high-powered cars. The 
distance, however, between all cars can be altered depending on 
how long the race is allowed to run. If it continues for just a short 
time, the distance between cars will not he much but as the race goes 
on the distance separating all the cars in the race becomes greater. 


60 


When the tones of the subject are separated in exactly the same 
ratio on the negative as they are in the subject, the negative has been 
developed to a gamma of unity (1). When the tone separation of 
the negative is greater than the subject, the negative has been de¬ 
veloped to a gamma of more than unity. When the ratio of tone 
separation is less on the negative than in the subject, the negative 
has been developed to a gamma of less than unity. 

Therefore, when it is desired to record the tone ratios of the 
subject exactly as they are, development to a gamma value of 1. is 
always used. When the ratios are required to be less than in the sub¬ 
ject, development is carried out to a gamma value of less than unity. 
Similarly when the ratios are required to be greater than in the 
subject, development to a gamma value of more than unity is used. 

As the length of time in a developing solution determines the 
value of gamma, it becomes obvious that in working the photographic 
process for its finest points, the proper time of development is not 
the manufacturers’ recommended time, half of this time, or an hour 
and one-half. The proper time is the time required to reach a selected 
value of gamma. 

Conventional usage has assigned the following values of gamma 
for general work: 


Value of Gamma 


Type of Film 


Aero 

Commercial 

Portrait 

Press 

Miniature 

Amateur 


1.2 

1.0 

.9 

1.2 

.8 

1.0 


The aero film and press film are developed to a gamma of 1.2 so 
that the tone ratios on the negative are greater than in the subject. 
In general, scenes in work of this kind are flat and lacking in tone 
contrast. As the rendering must be as bright as possible, the tone 
ratios are pulled farther apart than they actually are. 

Commercial films and amateur films are developed to a gamma 
of 1. In general these scenes are of average contrast and the render¬ 
ing, of tone contrasts as they are is entirely satisfactory. 

Portrait films are developed to a gamma of .9 so the tone ratios 


61 





Figure 33 Figure 34 Figure 35 

Subject of Average Contrast. Subject of Average Contrast. Subject of Average Contrast. 
Negative Developed to Negative Developed to Negative Developed to 

Gamma .7. Gamma .9. Gamma 1.1. 


are less than the subject. In the usual professional portraits spot¬ 
lights brilliantly illuminate small portions of the face in great con¬ 
trast to darker portions of the picture. To keep these contrasts within 
the reproduction range and also to soften the rendering of skin 
texture these tone ratios are kept less than the original subject. 
Miniature films are developed to a gamma of .8, but this is because 
grain is minimized at this point, not because of subject matter. 

In practice the value of gamma which is selected for the develop¬ 
ment of any film should be determined by the contrast of the original 
subject rather than by grouping under types of work. Because one 
takes a portrait is no reason to arbitrarily develop the film to a 
gamma value of .9. Perhaps Hollywood spot and pattern lightings 
will not be used. Perhaps skin texture as in the Frontispiece is de¬ 
sired. It is far better to classify by subject contrast. Let the way in 
which the ratios of the subject tones are to be recorded determine 
the value of gamma. Subjects should be classified as follows: 


Subject 

Low Contrast 
Average Contrast 
High Contrast 

The keying of subject contrast 


Develop to Gamma of 

1.2, greater tone ratio 
1.0, same tone ratio 
.8, lesser tone ratio 

and degree of development as 


62 






Figure 36 

Low Contrast Subject, Negative 
Developed to Gamma .8. 


Both Prints on Same Grade of Paper . 


Figure 37 

Low Contrast Subject, Negative 
Developed to Gamma 1.2. 


sumes a natural rendering of the subject which is required in almost 
all pictures. For special effects a high contrast subject might be 
developed to a high gamma (Fig. 39) or a low contrast subject to 
a low gamma. (Fig. 36.) These possible variations are easily made 
once the entire technique of negative making is thoroughly mas¬ 
tered and these special effects are, therefore, under complete control. 

Figures 33, 34 and 35 show the appearance of negatives of aver¬ 
age subject contrast developed to different gammas. There will be 
difficulty in getting a good print from a negative such as Fig. 33 
but it can be done. Fig. 34 will make an excellent enlargement. Fig. 
35 will print but will require a soft paper. Thus with average subject 
contrasts development does not have to be critical. 

The importance of selecting the proper gamma for development 
when dealing with subject matter of other than average contrast 
cannot be over-estimated. Figures 36 and 37 show a low contrast 


63 









Figure 38 Figure 39 

High Contrast Subject. Negative High Contrast Subject. Negative 

Developed to Gamma .8. Developed to Gamma 1.2. 

Both Prints on Same Grade of Paper. 


subject with negatives developed to gamma .8 and gamma 1.2. There 
are times when the effect of Fig. 36 might be desirable but in most 
cases rendition as in Fig. 37 is required. 

Figures 38 and 39 show a high contrast subject with negatives 
developed to gamma .8 and gamma 1.2. In Fig. 39 the plaster head 
has gone black and the detail in the glass brick higher up lias not 
come in. The effect is a silhouette. In Fig. 38 there is detail in the 
glass brick all the way to . the top and the plaster head is in deep 
shadow with detail still visible. The effect of Fig. 39 might be desir¬ 
able in some instances but most of the time the full tone rendition 
of Fig. 38 is required. 

CLASSIFICATION OF SUBJECTS 

The following classification of subject matter into low, average 
and high contrast groups will prove helpful. The same subject can 
undergo extensive alterations in contrast under different lighting 
conditions: 


64 























































































Low Contrast 
Open Landscapes 

Outdoor scenes on dull 
days 

Coseups for detail 
Distant Views 


Average Contrast 

Sunlit landscapes with 
foreground objects 

Street Scenes 

All scenes which defi¬ 
nitely do not fit in 
high or low contrast 
classifications. 

Portraits lighted as in 
Chapter Eight 


High Contrast 

Interiors generally 

Pattern lightings 

Snow scenes with im¬ 
portant dark objects 

Subjects through arch¬ 
ways, windows, doors 

Subjects includingboth 
indoors and outdoors 


TIME AND GAMMA TABLES 

The time-gamma tables of various films with the manufacturers’ 
recommended developer are not always available. Some of the in¬ 
formation for the most popular films has been assembled. If the 
tables do not give films or developers which are preferred, the service 
departments of the film manufacturers will give this information.* 

The time for various values of gamma must be determined in the 
laboratory of the film manufacturer. The time changes for different 
developers. When a manufacturer recommends a developer for use 
with a particular film, many practical considerations such as effec¬ 
tive emulsion speed, fog value, and keeping qualities have deter¬ 
mined the recommendation. 

A gamma of unity is a gamma of unity whether with metol, pyro, 
hydroquinone, or glycin. The developing time required to get a given 
value of gamma will vary with different developers but once it is 
reached the tones on the negative will be in the same ratios as in the 
subject with any developer. The factors of density and negative tone 
scale are controlled by exposure and selection of negative stock. It, 
therefore, becomes obvious that the best procedure for development 
is to use the manufacturer’s recommended developer with his time- 
gamma tables. Changing to other developers complicates the pro¬ 
cedure by adding unknown factors and can produce no better results. 

Accepting this method of developing immediately clears away 
the confusion regarding the various other developing systems such 
as inspection, factorial, dilution, etc. The manufacturers all base 


* Readers must realize that a manufacturer can only furnish Time-Gamma information for his 
own films when developed in the formula which he recommends for the film. 


65 






their gamma tables on time and temperature development. Hence, 
no other system can be accurately used. As a matter of fact all the 
other systems of developing are gradually disappearing. No other 
method approaches the results that can be obtained by developing 
to a selected gamma according to subject contrast. 

NOTES ON THE TIME-GAMMA TABLES 

The Weston Ratings are based on maximum film speed with the 
particular developer recommended. The developer used has a pro¬ 
found effect on effective film speed and must he taken into considera¬ 
tion. If a denser negative is required use a lens opening ^ sto P 
larger than the indicated exposure. 

Maximum development, that is development to gamma infinity 
is not often used in normal photographic work because the quality 
of the photographic images usually suffers. 

The Weston Maximum Speed Ratings are based on development 
to gamma .8 for miniature film, gamma .9 for portrait film, gamma 
1. for amateur and commercial film, gamma 1.2 for press film and 
gamma 3. for process film with the specified developers. If other 
developers or other gammas are used the ratings may vary accord¬ 
ingly. 

Almost all time-gamma information is based on developing at 
65°F. Room temperatures are usually higher. When ready to de¬ 
velop always take the temperature of the developer. Assume that a 
rise of 10°F. will cut the developing time in half. Therefore, with 
each rise of 1°F. above 65°F. decrease the developing time 5%. 

For example, if the time is 10 minutes at 65° use 8^4 minutes 
at 68°F, 7 y 2 minutes at 70°, 5 minutes at 75°F. The temperature 
compensation is not absolutely accurate but is close enough for 
practical use. 


66 


Time—Gamma Table 


AGFA 

Maximum 
Weston 
Speed Rating 

Developer 

Formula 

De¬ 

veloper 

Tem¬ 

perature 

Value of Gamma 

.7 

.8 

.9 



1.2 

1.3 

Daylight 

Mazda 

1 . 

1.1 

/. Miniature Films 






Tii 

ne i 

n M 

iinu 

tes 


Fine Grain Plenachrome 

32 

20 

Agfa 17 

65° 

8 

10 

12 

16 




Finopan. 

24 

16 

Agfa 17 

65° 


7 

9 

12 

14 



Superpan Supreme . 

64 

40 

Agfa 17 

65° 

8J 

10 

12 

14 




Ultra Speed Pan. 

125 

80 

Agfa 17 

65° 

14 

18 






2. Rolls and Packs 












Standard. 

16 

5 

Agfa 47 

65° 


41 

6 

8 




Plenachrome. 

32 

20 

Agfa 47 

65° 


4 

5 

7 

8 



Super Plenachrome. 

64 

40 

Agfa 47 

65° 


4 

5* 

8 




Finopan. 

24 

16 

Agfa 47 

65° 




5 

6 

7 

8 

Superpan Supreme. 

64 

40 

Agfa 47 

65° 



4 i 

6 

9 



Superpan Press. 

125 

80 

Agfa 47 

65° 


4 

5 

6 

8 



3. Cut Film 












Super Sensitive Pan. 

50 

32 

D-l Pyro Tank 

65° 



6 

8 

10 






D-l Pyro Tray 

65° 




4§ 

5J 






Agfa 47 Tank 

65° 

6 

8 

12 

14 







Agfa 47 Tray 

65° 

4 

5 

6 

8 

10 



Super Pan Portrait. 

32 

20 

D-l Pyro Tank 

65° 



7 

8 

10 

12 

14 




D-l Pyro Tray 

65° 



4 

5 

6 

8 

10 




Agfa 47 Tank 

65° 



8 

10 

12 






Agfa 47 Tray 

65° 




5 

6 

8 


Iso Pan. 

64 

40 

Agfa 17 Tank 

65° 

9 

12 

16 

20 







Agfa 47 Tray 

65° 



5 

8 







Agfa 47 Tank 

65° 



8 

12 




Supersensitive 












Plenachrome. 

64 

20 

D-l Tray 

65° 


4 

6 

9 







D-l Tank 

65° 

6 

7 

9 

12 







Agfa 47 Tray 

65° 

4 

5 

8 

10 







Agfa 47 Tank 

65° 

7 

9 

12 

18 




Triple S Pan. 

125 

80 

Agfa 47 

65° 

4 

6 

10 





Superpan Press. 

125 

80 

Agfa 47 

65° 

4 

5 

7 

10 





\ 


67 






































































































































































































FORMULAS LISTED IN GAMMA INFINITY TABLES 

D-l PYRO 



Stock Solutions 

Avoirdupois 

Metric 

A. 

Sodium Bisulphite. 

. 140 grains 

9.8 grams 


Pyro. 

. 2 ounces 

60 grams 


Potassium Bromide. 

. 16 grains 

1.1 grams 


Water to make. 

. 32 ounces 

1 liter 

B. 

Sodium Sulphite. 

. 3 y 2 ounces 

105 grams 


Water to make. 

. 32 ounces 

1 liter 

C. 

Sodium Carbonate. 

. 2*4 ounces 

75 grams 


Water to make. 

. 32 ounces 

1 liter 


For a half-gallon tank take four and one-half ounces (143 
cc.) each A, B and C and add distilled water to make a 
half-gallon. (2 liters.) Use only once and then discard. 

D-76 


Metol (Elon). 

Sodium Sulphite. 

Hydroquinone. 

Borax. 

Avoirdupois 

. 116 grains 

. 13 ounces 

. 290 grains 

. 115 grains 

Metric 

8 grams 
400 grams 
20 grams 
8 grams 
4 liters 

Water to make. 

. 1 gallon 

Use distilled water. 

Can be kept in a tank and 

replen- 

ished. Filter before 

using, as sludge forms. 


D-76 REPLENISHER 



Avoirdupois 

Metric 

Metol (Elon). 

. 175 grains 

12 grams 

Sodium Sulphite. 

. 13^ ounces 

400 grams 

Hydroquinone. 

. 1 ounce 

30 grams 

Borax. 

.2 oz. 290 grains 

80 grams 

Water to make. 

. 1 gallon 

4 liters 

Use Replenisher solution without dilution and 

add to 

tank to maintain the level of the solution. 



D-19 

Avoirdupois 

Metric 

Water (125° F.). 

. 64 ounces 

2.0 liters 

Elon. 

. 128 grains 

8.8 grams 

Sodium Sulphite. 

.12 oz. 360 grains 

384.0 grams 

Hydroquinone. 

. 1 oz. 75 grains 

35.2 grams 

Sodium Carbonate..-. 

. 6 oz. 180 grains 

192.0 grams 

Potassium Bromide. 

. 290 grains 

20.0 grams 

Cold water to make. 

. 1 gallon 

4.0 liters 

Use without dilution 



70 




































DK-20 


Water (125° F.). 


Avoirdupois 

60 oz. 

Metric 

750.0 cc. 

Elon. 


. 175 grains 

5.0 grams 

Sodium Sulphite, anhydrous. 


8 oz. 

100.0 grams 

Kodalk. 


70 grains 

2.0 grams 

Potassium sulphocyanide 
(thiocyanate). 


35 grains 

1.0 grams 

Potassium bromide. 


18 grains 

0.5 grams 

Cold water to make. 


80 oz. 

1.0 liter 

DK-20 REPLENISHER 


Water (125° F.). 


Avoirdupois 

60 oz. 

Metric 

750.0 cc. 

Elon. 


265 grains 

7.5 grams 

Sodium sulphite, anhydrous.. 


8 oz. 

100.0 grams 

Kodalk. 

. 1 oz. 

260 grains 

20.0 grams 

Potassium sulphocyanide 
(thiocyanate)... 


175 grains 

5.0 grams 

Potassium bromide.... 


35 grains 

1.0 grams 

Cold water to make.. 


80 oz. 

1.0 liter 

Water (125° F.). 

DK-50 

Avoirdupois 

64 ounces 

» 

Metric 

2.0 liters 

Elon... 


145 grains 

10.0 grams 

Sodium Sulphite. 


4 ounces 

120.0 grams 

Hydroquinone.. 


145 grains 

10.0 grams 

Kodalk. 

. 1 oz. 

145 grains 

40.0 grams 

Potassium bromide... 


29 grains 

2.0 grams 

Cold water to make. 


1 gallon 

4.0 liters 


For tank, take 1 part stock solution and 1 part water. 


DK-50 REPLENISHER 


Avoirdupois Metric 

Water (125° F.). 96 ounces 3.0 liters 

Elon. 290 grains 20.0 grams 

Sodium Sulphite. 4 ounces 120.0 grams 

Hydroquinone.. loz. 145 grains 40.0 grams 

Kodalk... 5% ounces 160.0 grams 

Cold water to make. . 1 gallon 4.0 liters 


Dilute 1 part Stock Solution with 1 part water and add to 
the tank as needed to maintain the level of the solution. 





































FORMULAS LISTED IIS GAMMA INFINITY TABLES 


D-l PYRO 



Stock Solutions 

Avoirdupois 

Metric 

A. 

Sodium Bisulphite. 

...140 grains 

9.8 

grams 


Pyro. 

. 2 ounces 

60 

grams 


Potassium Bromide. 

.. 16 grains 

1.1 

grams 


Water to make. 

... 32 ounces 

1 

liter 

B. 

Sodium Sulphite. 

. 3^4 ounces 

105 

grams 


Water to make. 

. 32 ounces 

1 

liter 

C. 

Sodium Carbonate. 

. 2]/ 2 ounces 

75 

grams 


Water to make. 

. 32 ounces 

1 

liter 


For a half-gallon tank take four and one-half ounces (143 
cc.) each A, B and C and add distilled water to make a 
half-gallon. (2 liters.) Use only once and then discard. 

D-76 



Avoirdupois 

Metric 

Metol (Elon). 

. 116 grains 

8 grams 

Sodium Sulphite. 

. 13 ounces 

400 grams 

Hydroquinone. 

. 290 grains 

20 grams 

Borax. 

. 115 grains 

8 grams 

Water to make. 

. 1 gallon 

4 liters 


Use distilled water. Can be kept in a tank and replen¬ 
ished. Filter before using, as sludge forms. 


D-76 REPLENISHER 


Avoirdupois Metric 

Metol (Elon)... 175 grains 12 grams 

Sodium Sulphite. 13^ ounces 400 grams 

Hydroquinone. 1 ounce 30 grams 

Borax.2 oz. 290 grains 80 grams 

Water to make. 1 gallon 4 liters 


Use Replenisher solution without dilution and add to 


tank to maintain the level of the solution. 

D-19 

Avoirdupois 

Metric 

Water (125° F.). 


64 ounces 

2.0 liters 

Elon.... 


128 grains 

8.8 grams 

Sodium Sulphite. 

.12 oz. 

360 grains 

384.0 grams 

Hydroquinone. 

. 1 oz. 

75 grains 

35.2 grams 

Sodium Carbonate. 

. 6 oz. 

180 grains 

192.0 grams 

Potassium Bromide. 


290 grains 

20.0 grams 

Cold water to make. 

Use without dilution. 


1 gallon 

4.0 liters 


70 




































DK-20 


Water (125° F.). 


Avoirdupois 

60 oz. 

Metric 

750.0 cc. 

Elon. 


. 175 grains 

5.0 grams 

Sodium Sulphite, anhydrous.. 


8 oz. 

100.0 grams 

Kodalk. 


70 grains 

2.0 grams 

Potassium sulphocyanide 
(thiocyanate). 


35 grains 

1.0 grams 

Potassium bromide. 


18 grains 

0.5 grams 

Cold water to make. 


80 oz. 

1.0 liter 

DK-20 REPLENISHER 


Water (125° F.)... 


Avoirdupois 

60 oz. 

Metric 

750.0 cc. 

Elon. 


265 grains 

7.5 grams 

Sodium sulphite, anhydrous.. 


8 oz. 

100.0 grams 

Kodalk. 

. 1 oz. 

260 grains 

20.0 grams 

Potassium sulphocyanide 
(thiocyanate). 


175 grains 

5.0 grams 

Potassium bromide. 


35 grains 

1.0 grams 

Cold water to make. 


80 oz. 

1.0 liter 

Water (125° F.). 

DK-50 

Avoirdupois 

64 ounces 

1 

Metric 

2.0 liters 

Elon...... . 


145 grains 

10.0 grams 

Sodium Sulphite... 


4 ounces 

120.0 grains 

Hydroquinone. 


145 grains 

10.0 grams 

Kodalk. 

. 1 oz. 

145 grains 

40.0 grams 

Potassium bromide. 


29 grains 

2.0 grams 

Cold water to make. 


1 gallon 

4.0 liters 

For tank, take 1 part stock solution and 1 part 

water. 


DK-50 REPLENISHER 

Avoirdupois Metric 


Water (125° F.). 96 ounces 3.0 liters 

Elon. 290 grains 20.0 grams 

Sodium Sulphite... 4 ounces 120.0 grams 

Hydroquinone.... 1 oz. 145 grains 40.0 grams 

Kodalk. 5% ounces 160.0 grams 

Cold water to make. 1 gallon 4.0 liters 


Dilute 1 part Stock Solution with 1 part water and add to 
the tank as needed to maintain the level of the solution. 





































DK-60A 




Avoirdupois 

Metric 

Water (125° F.). 


96 ounces 

3.0 liters 

Elon.. 


145 grains 

10.0 grams 

Sodium Sulphite. 

. 6 oz. 

290 grains 

200.0 grams 

Hvdroquinone.. 


145 grains 

10.0 grams 

Kodalk. . 

. 2 oz. 

290 grains 

80.0 grams 

Potassium Bromide. 


29 grains 

2.0 grams 

Cold water to make. 


1 gallon 

4.0 liters 

Use without dilution. 





D-72 



See page 159. 

For negatives use 1:1. 


AGFA-17 





Avoirdupois 

Metric 

Hot Water (125° F.). 


24 ounces 

750 cc. 

Metol. 


22 grains 

1.5 grams 

Sodium Sulphite, anhydrous. 

. 2 l / 2 oz. 

80 grains 

80 grams 

Hydroquinone. 


45 grains 

3 grams 

Borax.. 


45 grains 

3 grams 

Potassium Bromide. 


7.5 grains 

.5 grams 

Water to make.. 


32 ounces 

1 liter 

AGFA-47 





Avoirdupois 

Metric 

Hot Water (125° F.). 


24 ounces 

750 cc. 

Metol. 


22 grains 

1.5 grams 



Sodium Sulphite, anhydrous. 


iy 2 ounces 

45 grams 

Sodium Bisulphite. 


15 grains 

1 gram 

Hydroquinone... 


45 grains 

3 grams 

Sodium Carbonate, monohydrated. 

88 grains 

6 grams 

Potassium Bromide. 


12 grains 

.8 gram 

Water to make.. 


32 ounces 

1 liter 


ND-2 





Avoirdupois 

Metric 

Water... 


125 fl. ozs. 

975.0 ccs. 

Rhodol, (Metol or Elon). 


146 grains 

2.5 grams 

Sodium Sulphite, anhydrous. 


10 oz. 

75.0 grams 

Hydroquinone.. 


175 grains 

3.0 grams 

Borax. 


292 grains 

5.0 grams 

This makes final volume. 


1 gallon 

1.0 liter 






































ND-3 




Avoirdupois 

Metric 

Water (125° F.). 


125 fl. oz. 

975.0 ccs. 

Sodium Sulphite, anhydrous.. 


12 oz. 

90.0 grams 

Paraphenylenediamine. 

. 1 oz. 

146 grains 

10.0 grams 

Glycin... 


117 grains 

2.0 grams 

This makes final volume. 


1 gallon 

1.0 liter 


ND-4 





Avoirdupois 

Metric 

Water. 


125 fl. oz. 

985.0 ccs. 

Rhodol (Metol or Elon).. 


23 grains 

0.40 grams 

Sodium Sulphite, anhydrous.. 

. 6 oz. 

290 grains 

50.0 grams 

Hydroquinone. 


131 grains 

2.25 grams 

Borax.. 


73 grains 

1.25 grams 

Citric Acid.. 


23 grains 

0.40 grams 

This makes final volume. 


1 gallon 

1.0 liter 


DEVELOPING ROLL FILMS 

A roll of film must be developed to one gamma value. It is im¬ 
possible to vary the developing time of different portions of the 
film according to the subject matter. It is equally impossible to get 
maximum quality in pictures taking scenes of high, low and average 
contrast and developing them all alike. The only answer to this 
dilemma is to have two cameras. 

The reflex with its individual film holders can be used on high 
or low contrast scenes and the roll film camera can be used on scenes 
of average contrast. If two cameras are not available it is best to 
avoid scenes of high or low contrast, unless a complete roll is used 
on these special subjects. If one roll contains scenes of various con¬ 
trasts develop to gamma .9 as a compromise. 

FINE GRAIN DEVELOPMENT 

Under the table giving the conventional values of gamma for 
various types of film (Page 61) miniature negatives are developed 
to a gamma of .8. Here the most important factor supposedly is the 
greatest freedom from grain so that the maximum degree of enlarge¬ 
ment can be obtained. The greatest freedom from grain will be 
secured by using film stock stated by the manufacturer to be fine 


73 


















grained, developed in a fine grain developer, to a gamma of .8.* 

Obviously here is another dilemma. Which is most important— 
controlling the ratio of subject tones to negative tones or getting the 
utmost possible fineness of grain? What can be done depends on 
the degree of enlargement required. The worker requiring an 
11x14 print from half a 35 mm. frame is in a much tougher spot 
than another miniature worker requiring an 11x14 print from all 
of a 2 1 / 4 x 2 1 / 4 negative. 

The object of the photographer is the production of pictures, 
not the striving to enlarge a small portion of a motion picture size 
negative to the greatest extent. If a negative does not enlarge to the 
required extent, it does not call for six months experimentation with 
all known fine grain developers. It means either learning to make 
negatives using all the available film area or, if this is still unsatis¬ 
factory, going to a larger negative size. The possibilities of enlarging 
cannot be overworked and the prospect of extreme enlargement must 
never overshadow the necessary negative quality for fine pictures. 

As the film itself has much more to do with the fineness of grain 
than the developer, it is often possible to develop to higher gamma 
than .8 and not run into too much grain. It, of course, depends on 
the negative area used and the size of the final print. For maximum 
enlargement a gamma of .8 must be adopted and low contrast sub¬ 
jects avoided, but that is not often necessary. Figure 40 is from a 
14x17 print made from a 2^4x2^ negative using all the picture 
area. The film was Verichrome developed to a gamma of 1.1 in D-76. 
There is no grain in the print. 

In discussing miniature procedure what must be done depends 
entirely on how much enlargement is necessary. Do not overwork 
the possibilities and expect the impossible. It is no longer necessary 
to go into the field with an 8x10 camera but it also does not follow 
that a 35mm: film size will be a perfect substitute in all cases. 

DEVELOPING EXTREMELY LONG SCALE SUBJECTS 

Development to a gamma of .8 is recommended for subjects of 
high contrast but there are some scenes encountered which have 

* The Maintenance of Negative Quality.—J. I. Crabtree, Kodak Research Laboratories, Rochester, 
N. Y. 


74 




Figure 40. The original print was enlarged to 14 x 17" from a 2 l /± x 2\ 4" Verichrome 
negative developed in D-76 to gamma 1.1. No grain is apparent hut the author acknowU 
edges that the reproduction does not offer proof of that since the reduction in size also 

reduces visible grain. 


75 








Figure 41 

High Contrast Subject. Negative 
Developed to Gamma .8. 


Figure 42 

High Contrast Subject. Negative 
Developed in Cut-back Pyro. 


Both Prints on Same Grade of Paper. 


such great contrasts that this development will not give satisfactory 
negatives. There are also scenes where a small portion of the picture 
area is a concentrated spot of intense light and halation must he 
avoided. 

Scenes of such great contrasts might be encountered in a deep 
forest with sunlight filtering through the leaves and most of the 
picture in deep shadow; or in photographing the pouring of molten 
metal in a steel mill. Great contrasts and trouble with halation are 
always encountered when photographing interiors and exteriors at 
the same time, as in an interior looking out on a garden. 

The remedy is to use the regular D-l Pyro formula (Page 70) 
with only one-third the carbonate content. Ordinarily this developer 
works through the entire thickness of the film. By cutting the car¬ 
bonate, its action is confined in large part to the surface. Thus the 
powerful highlight tones do not develop out to the fullest extent 
whereas the weaker shadow tones do. 


76 








Figure 43 Figure 44 

Halation. Negative Made on Non-Backed No Halation. Negative Made on Film with 
Plate Developed to Gamma .8. Antihalation Backing Developed in Cut¬ 

back Pyro. 


When scenes of excessive contrast are encountered, or scenes 
where halation is expected, develop in D-l Pyro tank dilution, the 
carbonate content cut to one-third, and the time increased hy three. 
For most films this would be from 30-40 minutes at 65°. 

Figures 41 and 42 show the difference in a long scale subject 
developed normally and in cut-back pyro. Notice the outdoors is 
visible in Fig. 42. Figures 43 and 44 show the value of cut-back pyro 
and anti-halation film in overcoming halation. 

While the cut-back Pyro method has been used on long scale sub¬ 
jects for many years, a new technique has recently been developed, 
the P & H Process, which handles long scale subjects better than 
any previous method. As a matter of fact the P & H Process gives 
a marked increase in emulsion speed and enables shadow detail to 
build up to a considerable extent without blocking up the high¬ 
lights. Even in the case of subjects which are not particularly long 
scale, it has much merit. 

The process is quite simple. The film is immersed in a developer, 


77 



containing no bromide, for a long enough period to thoroughly satu¬ 
rate the film, but a short enough time so that little development 
takes place during this period. This is from 45 seconds to minutes 
depending on the film. 

Then the film is squeegeed, emulsion face down, on a piece of 
clean glass with a soft squeegee. The action should be gentle. (Hard 
squeegees cause streaked films.) The glass and film are laid in a tray 
of water at 70° for 15 minutes. The water has nothing to do with 
the development. It is the way of securing the proper developing 
temperature. Development proceeds to completion within the 15 
minutes and the film is then fixed in the usual way. 

As the film is immersed in the developer for only long enough 
to saturate the emulsion, little development takes place until the 
film has been squeegeed to the glass and immersed in water. The 
highlight tones come out first. As they develop vigorously they re¬ 
lease quantities of potassium bromide which act as a restrainer and 
limit development in the highlights. When the developer saturating 
the film around a highlight tone is used up development ceases. 

In the shadow tones development proceeds slowly with little 
potassium bromide being released, and smaller quantities of de¬ 
veloper being used. Therefore, the shadow tones, being more free 
from restraining action and using up the available developer more 
slowly actually develop further than with ordinary developing pro¬ 
cedures. When all the developer is used up action ceases. 

The only disadvantage to the process is that special apparatus 
is required for processing roll film or any quantity of cut film. A few 
cut films at a time can be easily handled with just a squeegee and a 
piece of glass. 

DEVELOPING PROCEDURE 

In making up all negative developing formulas , it is absolutely 
necessary to use distilled water for both stock solution and dilution. 
When cut films are developed it is important to have the developing 
tank of ample size so the developer has free access to each negative. 
Do not crowd too many hangers into the tank. It is preferable to get 
a larger tank. 


78 


In preparation for developing, films are best put on cut film 
hangers or roll film reels in absolute darkness. The safeness of a 
safe light is entirely relative and the best way to prevent light from 
affecting the film is not to use it. If an open cut film tank is used, it 
can be covered with an old hat box and the light turned on. 

On placing films in an open cut film tank, it is best to raise and 
lower each hanger several times to prevent air bells from clinging 
to the surface of the films. Twirling the reel of a roll film tank does 
the same. The film must be agitated during development to secure 
evenly developed negatives. With cut film, this is accomplished by 
removing the cover from the tank and raising and lowering each 
developing hanger several times. With roll film it is accomplished 
by twirling the reel several times. It is good practice to divide the 
total time of development into five equal intervals, agitating at 
each one. 

When development is completed, the films are rinsed in tap 
water somewhat near the temperature of the developer and placed 
in the fixing bath. The following fixing formula is entirely clean 
working, forms no scum, and has a long working life. 


Water... 

Hypo. 

Sodium Sulphite.... 

Acetic Acid. 

Boric Acid crystals 

Potassium Alum. 

Water to make. 


FIXING BATH 

Avoirdupois 

. 40 ounces 

. 16 ounces 

. 1 ounce 

. 3 fluid oz. 

... y 2 ounce 

. 1 ounce 

. 64 ounces 


Metric 

1200 cc. 

480 grams 
30 grams 
96 cc. 

15 grams 
30 grams 
2 liters 


Immerse double the time required for the films to fix out. 
Use a fresh solution when films do not fix out in 6 min¬ 
utes. Do not use on prints. 


After fixation is complete the films are well washed in water of 
approximately the same temperature as the other solutions. A mixer 
faucet in the darkroom, giving both hot and cold water at the same 
outlet, is the easiest way in which to regulate the temperature of the 
wash water. 

The films are hung up to dry some place that is free from dust 


79 












and at the same time permits free circuation of air. Allow excess 
water to drip from the films for three minutes and then remove all 
water drops with a viscose sponge sandwich. This will prevent dry¬ 
ing marks which sometimes spot films if they are not carefully wiped. 

TESTING NEW DEVELOPERS 

Most photographers are addicted to the vice of continuously 
experimenting with new or different developers, searching for some 
magic formula with which to create masterpieces. A few definitely 
like the fun of playing with something new and different. The 
purpose of including so much specific information on recommended 
developers is to make much experimenting unnecessary. These are 
the recommendations of the finest laboratories and are used by the 
finest technicians in the world. 

For those who will still experiment beyond this, a word of caution. 
Do not heedlessly switch from one tried and proven developer to 
that recommended by a fellow amateur without lliaking these few 
fundamental simple tests. Then if you are satisfied it is an improve¬ 
ment, use it by all means. Comparison at all times to a present 
standard developer must be the basis of all tests. The following 
simple tests are easily made: 

(a) Influence of Developer on Emulsion Speed 

To test the effect of a new developer on emulsion speed, 
make a series of step exposures to a weak light source, 
cut the film in half, develop one-half in the standard 
developer and the other half in the new developer. 
Wash, fix, and dry. Then place the two halves together 
and compare densities. 

A convenient way to make this test is to load a 3^4 x 4^4 
cut film holder. As a light source use an ordinary flash¬ 
light with the light diffused with one layer of tissue 
paper. Place the film holder 20 feet from the light 
source in a room in which there is no stray light. Your 
living room at night with the shades down and the door 
closed will he satisfactory. 

In the dark withdraw the slide in the film holder so that 
only l / 2 inch of film is covered. This portion will not 
be exposed. Set the holder upright on a table so it is 


perpendicular to the light source. Have an assistant turn 
on the light and give step exposures of 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 and 
32 seconds. This is done by counting the seconds out 
loud and moving the slide down ^ inch on the proper 
counts. 

After the exposure, cut the film in half and develop one- 
half in your standard developer, the other half in the 
new developer. When the two strips have been fixed, 
washed and dried, a comparison of densities will show 
the effect of the developer on emulsion speed. Using 
two separate films and attempting to duplicate exposures, 
or using negative exposed on an ordinary scene will not 
give an accurate comparison. 

(b) Fineness of Grain 

Make an exposure of an outdoor scene including clouds. 
This kind of scene is more apt to produce a grain be¬ 
cause of dense highlight deposits than just any scene. 
Cut the film in half and develop one-half in your stan¬ 
dard developer, the other in the new developer. 

Put both halves together in the enlarger and make a big 
enlargement of part of the negative including both 
clouds and foreground. The print will tell you if there 
is any difference in grain. 

(c) Fog 

Examine the unexposed rabbet on the edge of each half 
of the film with a magnifying glass, against a strong light 
and compare the fog. 

(d) Gradation Qualities 

Expose two negatives on a very long scale subject. De¬ 
velop one in the standard developer, the other in the 
new developer. After fixing, washing and drying, go 
over each negative with a magnifying glass comparing 
gradation and tone separation in both the highest lights 
and the deepest shadows. 

(e) Developing Time 

If the correct developing time of the new developer is 


81 


not known, make four duplicate exposures of an aver¬ 
age scene such as your home on a sunshiny day. De¬ 
velop one negative properly in your standard developer. 
Use the same time on the new developer hut develop one 
negative for three minutes less and one for three minutes 
more. Usually one of the three negatives will closely 
approximate the contrast of the standard negative. If 
it is not exact, it will give an indication of which way to 
proceed and four more negatives should be made, the 
control negative again developed as a standard and the 
proper time determined from one of the other three, 
compared to your known standard. 

EXPERIMENTS IN DEVELOPING 

One hears so much about negative developers and their impor¬ 
tance that it becomes imperative to establish beyond all question of 
doubt exactly how much importance should be attached to the entire 
subject. How much effect does development really have on any 
picture? Will a minute more create a masterpiece? 

1. Make three identical exposures of a subject of average 
contrast such as your own house on a sunshiny day. Use 
double coated orthochromatic film such as Verichrome 
or Plenachrome. Develop one negative to a gamma of 
.8, one to 1.0 and one to 1.2. 

2. Make three identical exposures of a subject of low con¬ 
trast on commercial film such as Eastman Commercial 
Ortho or Agfa Super Sensitive Plenachrome. This could 
he your own house again hut on a dull cloudy day. De¬ 
velop to a gamma of .8, 1.0 and 1.2. 

3. Make two identical exposures of a subject of high con¬ 
trast on portrait film such as Eastman Par Speed Portrait 
or Defender Portrait. Develop to a gamma of .8 and 1.0. 

Not all the negatives produced above will give good prints. By 
varying the contrast of the printing paper some can be properly 
printed. In the first set on amateur film, negatives are developed to 
gammas .8, 1., 1.2. Can all three negatives be made to give good 
prints if paper contrast is varied? 


82 


In the second set? 

In the third set? 

Answer the following questions: 

(a) What has most to do with the contrast of a negative, 
development or negative stock? 

(b) On what type of film does varying development show 
most change in visual contrast or are all types affected 
to the same degree? Is this contrast because of develop¬ 
ment or because of negative stock? 

(c) If a dull subject is taken on film such as Verichrome or 
Plenachrome, can a brilliant negative be made by man¬ 
ipulating development? 

The answers to these questions are apparent if one makes the 
experiments. 

4. Make six exposures of an extremely long scale subject 
such as a combination indoor and outdoor scene. Two 
exposures should he on a non-backed plate, two on a 
non-backed film and two on a film with an anti-halation 
coating. The films and plates should all he the type 
recommended for portraiture. 

Develop a plate, non-backed film, and anti-halation film 
to gamma .8 and develop the others in cut-back Pyro 
(Page 76). 

1. Does the cut-hack Pyro help all three to the same 
degree? 

2. Is there enough difference between the negatives 
made on film with the anti-halation coating to war¬ 
rant this special treatment? 

3. In an extremely long scale subject, which is most 
important, development or film stock? 

After making these experiments, which are absolutely 
necessary to the proper evalution of the photographic 
process, answer the questions: “How Important Is De¬ 
velopment? Will a Minute More Create a Masterpiece?” 

5. With a new developing formula, one that from hearsay 
is supposedly pretty good, make all the experiments 
under Testing New Developers, Page 80, comparing to 
your standard developer. 


83 


Chapter Six 


SELECTION OF NEGATIVE STOCK 


Negative stock is just as much a factor in producing perfect 
negatives as are correct exposure and proper development, but of 
all the factors in negative making it receives the least attention. Just 
as there is no one developer that develops far better than any other, 
there is no one film stock that registers all tones better than any 
other. But there are certain film stocks which for given scenes will 
register the tones far better than others. Where is the photographer 
who has not taken a delightful distant vista only to find the film 
recorded little of what he saw and the picture was a dismal failure. 
Selection of proper negative stock has far more to do with fine 
pictures than developers and developing methods. 

Films differ in contrast, color sensitivity, and speed. With the 
technical advances in the last few years, speed is no longer a primary 
consideration. Fast films work with no loss of quality; a fact which 
was not true in the past. Ultra-speed emulsions should not he used 
if the minimum amount of grain is required for maximum enlarging. 
Otherwise fast films are entirely satisfactory and allow the use of 
smaller stops which, most of the time, is a distinct advantage. Today, 
the determining factors in the selection of film stock are contrast 
and color sensitivity. 

NEGATIVE TONE SEPARATION 

When a negative is developed to a gamma of unity, the ratio of 


84 


tone separation is the same between negative and subject. Suppose 
a series of light intensities are recorded such as 

1 2 4 8 16 

This is a geometrical progression. Each number is multiplied by 
the same factor, in this case 2. An arithmetical progression is where 
the same factor is added instead of multiplied. Here it would be 

1,3, 5, 7,9. 

The eye recognizes light intensities only in geometrical progres¬ 
sion. Take a cluster of ten light bulbs, for example. Add another 
bulb and you will see no difference in brightness. Double the number 
of bulbs and you will see twice as much light. 

Now in depositing silver on the negative representing light inten¬ 
sities, it is necessary only that every step in the progression be 
represented by an equal increase in the amount of silver deposited. 
Thus light intensities 1 2 4 8 16 (geometrical progression) could 
be represented by silver densities .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 (arithmetical pro¬ 
gression) or they could be represented by silver densities .5 .7 .9 
1.1 1.3. 

The ratios between subject tones and negative tones in both cases 
are still the same. Two negatives on different film stocks can have 
the same tone ratios as the subject but visually have entirely different 
contrasts. Refer to the negatives made in the experiments on devel¬ 
opment. Negatives on amateur and commercial film were both de¬ 
veloped to a gamma of unity. The commercial film has much more 
contrast visually. 

The ratio of tones between subject and negative is determined 
by development. The spacing of tones is determined by film stock 
itself. Negative tones can be in the same ratio as subject tones but 
can have greater or lesser differences between them without inter¬ 
fering with the subject to negative tone ratio. Two ladders can have 
12 rungs each but the rungs can be a foot apart in one case and only 
six inches apart in the other. 

CONTRAST AND THE SELECTION OF NEGATIVE STOCK 

All films do not record the same range of light values. A portrait 
film will record a range of 1-256. The average amateur films record 
1-128. By amateur film is meant the double coated orthochromatic 


85 


“chrome” film, such as Eastman Yerichrome or Agfa Plenachrome. 
Press films probably average 1-90, commercial films 1-45, and process 
films 1-20. Thus there is a great difference in the number of tones 
which different types of film are able to record. 

Suppose a film is represented by a rubber hand just long enough 
to accommodate 90 pins right next to each other. The pins are then 
put in place and the band stretched one-third its length. There is 
room for 30 more pins and the band will now hold 120 pins. There 
is no more rubber in the band than originally but the amount of 
rubber for each individual pin is less. 

If the band is then stretched double this length, twice the number 
of pins can be used. Now the band will hold 240 pins. The amount 
of rubber in the band is still the same as it was originally hut the 
amount holding each individual pin is much less. 

Press film is represented by the 90 pins. Amateur film is repre¬ 
sented by the 120 pins and portrait film is represented by the 240 
pins. As the difference is in the amount of rubber apportioned be¬ 
tween pins, so the difference between the films is in the amount of 
silver apportioned between tones. 

Portrait film registering a tone range of 1-256 records the greatest 
range of tones with the least amount of difference between each tone- 
It has a long scale and soft contrast. Amateur films register a tone 
range of 1-128. These films do not have the long scale of portrait 
film. They have a normal scale and greater contrast. Press films 
register a tone range of 1-90 which is a shorter scale of tones but 
with more difference between them. Commercial films with a ratio of 
1-45 have a still shorter scale and higher contrast, and process films 
with a scale of 1-20 have the shortest scale and highest contrast. 

A long scale film records many tones with smaller differences 
or contrasts between them. A short scale film registers fewer tones 
with greater differences or contrasts between them. 

The amount of silver that a film deposits between tones for a 
given degree of development determines the scale and contrast and 
it is a characteristic of the film fixed at the time of manufacture. 

If a subject of low contrast, for example a distant view, is photo¬ 
graphed on a long scale film, such as portrait film, there is little 
separation between tones in the subject itself and minimum separa¬ 
tion on the film stock. Development cannot exaggerate tone differ- 


86 


ences sufficiently to make a printable picture with such a negative. 

It becomes obvious that long scale subjects should be photo¬ 
graphed on long scale film and short scale subjects on short scale film. 

Suppose a subject of very short tone range is photographed on 
commercial, amateur and portrait film and all negatives are devel¬ 
oped to a gamma of 1. The ratio between subject tones and negative 
tones will be the same on all three negatives but the separation 
between tones for printing will be greatest on the commercial film 
and least on the portrait film. The commercial film is the only one 
that will give a good print of such a subject. 

The separation on the portrait film while in the same ratio as 
the subject is such that there is little difference between tones. The 
negative will be too flat to print properly. The differentiation be¬ 
tween tones is greater on amateur film and the negative will give a 
better print than the portrait negative. The commercial negative 
with the widest tone separation will give the best print. Bear in mind 
the subject is of low contrast. The important point is that tone ratios 
between subject and negative can be the same although the amount 
of silver between steps can be different giving widely different prints. 

Practical procedure is to use long scale film (portrait) on sub¬ 
jects of high contrast; medium scale film (press and amateur) on 
subjects with normal contrasts; and short scale film (commercial) 
on subjects of low contrast so that all the tones are separated to give 
the best prints. 


TABLE FOR FILM SELECTION AND DEVELOPMENT 
ACCORDING TO SUBJECT CONTRAST 


Subject 
Low Contrast 


Normal Contrast 


High Contrast 


Film 

Commercial 
Short scale 

Gives higher printing con¬ 
trast 

Press or Amateur 
Medium scale 
Average printing contrast 
Portrait 
Long scale 

Gives lower printing con¬ 
trast 


Degree of Development 

Gamma 1.2 

Greater tone separation 
than subject. 

Gamma of 1. 

Same tone separation as 
subject. 

Gamma .8 

Lesser tone separation 
than subject. 


87 




A very broad indication of the scale of a film is given by the 
highest recommended value of gamma to which it should be de¬ 
veloped. If according to the Time-Gamma Tables (Pages 67-69) a 
film develops to a gamma of .8, or .9, it is a long scale film. If it 
develops to a gamma of 1. or 1.1, it is a medium scale film. If it 
develops to 1.2 or higher it is a short scale film. This is a very general 
classification and can be used when the manufacturer does not indi¬ 
cate the classification. 

Figure 45 shows an average subject taken on portrait film. This 
negative would give a good print on contrast paper. If, however, the 
negative had been made on a dull day which would have made the 
subject one of low contrast it would not be usable. 

Figure 46 shows the same subject on amateur film giving a good 
print on normal paper. Press film would also give a good print. 

Figure 47 shows the same subject on commercial film giving a 
print that is too contrasty. This negative would give a good print on a 
soft paper. If the lighting had been such as to cause brilliant high¬ 
lights and deep shadows this negative would not have been usable. 
In all three pictures the differences are entirely due to film stock, 
development having been carried to the same gamma and printing 
having been on normal paper. 

TESTING NEW FILMS 

When a new make of film is used it is well to make a few simple 
tests in comparison to your standard film in order to evaluate it 
properly. 

(a) Speed 

Fortunately laboratory tests are already available on 
film speeds. Your dealer will give you the latest Weston 
Film Rating Table without charge and here is a real 
comparison of film speeds made on a practical rather 
than theoretical basis. 

(b) Scale 

Films and plates are roughly classified as process, com¬ 
mercial, amateur, press and portrait. If there is any 
question in which group a film belongs, your dealer or 
the manufacturer will tell you. 


88 


Fig. 45 

Average Subject on 
Portrait Film Developed 
to Gamma 1. 


Fig. 46 
Average Subject on 
Amateur Film Devel¬ 
oped to Gamma 1. 


Fig. 47 

Average Subject on 
Commercial Film De¬ 
veloped to Gamma 1. 



All Prints on Same Grade of Paper. 


89 






















If you want a direct comparison, make two exposures of 
an average scene such as your own home in sunlight. 
Develop both negatives according to the manufacturer’s 
instructions to the same gamma. With the photometer 
described later in the hook, scale both negatives. This 
will clearly show how much difference exists. 

(c) Developing Time 

Time and gamma information can always be secured 
from the manufacturer of the film. 

(d) Grain 

If this is important make two identical exposures of an 
outdoor landscape including clouds, one your standard 
film, the other the new film. Develop both in the same 
developer. Make extreme enlargements and determine 
which shows most grain. 

(e) Gradation 

Make two exposures of a long scale subject, one on stan¬ 
dard film and the other on the film to be tested. Develop 
both according to manufacturer’s instructions. Go over 
the highest highlight and deepest shadow areas with a 
magnifying glass comparing tone separation and grada¬ 
tion. 

COLOR AND EMPHASIS 

The average photographer understands that panchromatic film 
is sensitive to light of all colors and, with a K-2 filter, registers color 
brightness as it appears to the eye. It might appear that the best 
procedure is to use panchromatic film exclusively because it gives 
the closest rendering to what is actually seen. However, in the finer 
points of photography, sensitivity to all colors is not always desirable. 
Like development and the selection of film stock the use of color 
sensitivity in the film depends entirely on the subject matter before 
the camera. 

Some subjects confronting the photographer are a mixture of 
objects of many colors and negative stock is best selected to reproduce 
the brightness of these objects as they appear in nature. Other sub¬ 
jects have one predominant color tone and the photographer has the 


90 



ability to bring in this dominant color as a light or dark tone, at will. 
This obvious means of tone control is overlooked by many photog¬ 
raphers. 

One of the means of achieving emphasis in a photographic print 
is the placement of light tones against dark tones. When a subject 
has one dominant color tone, the ability to bring in this color as light 
or dark can be used to emphasize this color in relation to the subject 
as a whole. 

In portraiture the dominant color tone of flesh is red. In photo¬ 
graphing the Grand Canyon, again the dominant color tone is red. 
In both cases all the reds can be emphasized by bringing them in 
dark or they can he subdued by bringing them in light. There is 
always the option of bringing them in at their natural values as well. 
The knowledge of the color-sensitive properties of films with the 
consequent ability to emphasize or subdue dominant color tones is a 
point of flexibility in the mechanical sequences of the photographic 


91 



process which can be made of great value in the production of effec¬ 
tive photographs. 

THE THEORY OF COLOR MIXTURE 

The theory of color mixture involved is not difficult to under¬ 
stand. White light is a mixture of light of all colors. If three spot 
lights, one red, one green and one blue, are focused one over the 
other on a white wall, the addition of these three colors produces 
white. Red, green and blue are, therefore, primary colors and when 
they are added together in various combinations, all colors can be 
made from them. 

It should be kept in mind that there are two methods of mixing 
colors: by the addition of light rays and by the subtraction of light 
rays. The photographer is concerned with the additive system where 
the primary colors are red, green and blue. Painters are concerned 
with mixing pigments, which is the subtraction of light rays and the 
subtractive primaries are blue-green, yellow and magenta. 

As white light is a mixture of red, green and blue light, all objects 
that appear white must reflect red, green and blue in equal propor¬ 
tions. Grey and black objects also reflect these colors in equal pro¬ 
portions and objects are white, grey or black, as the case may be, 
because of the amount of light they reflect, not because of the quality 
of the light. 

Colored objects differ from white objects because they do not 
reflect all three primary colors in equal amounts. Some color is 
reflected and the balance is absorbed. A red object is red because it 
reflects more red than other colors. A blue object is blue because it 
reflects more blue than other colors. A green object is green because 
it reflects more green than other colors. 

The one remaining color is yellow and this is the only difficult 
color relationship to remember. If we go back to the spot lights and 
add red and green light together, yellow is produced. Therefore, a 
yellow object is yellow because it reflects both red and green light 
together. 

All other colors are the expected combinations. A blue-green 
results when blue and green are added together. Orange results when 
the red and green combination, which produces yellow, favors the 
red. All a photographer must remember is that the three primary 


92 



“Rodin’s Thinker” 


Figure 50 


Paul Louis Hexter, A.R.P.S. 


93 






colors with which he is working are red, green and blue, and that red 
and green in combination produce yellow. 

Filters are small squares of dyed gelatin cemented between pieces 
of glass. They act exactly as one would expect. A red filter transmits 
red light. A green filter transmits green light and a blue filter trans¬ 
mits blue light. What does a yellow filter transmit? Yellow light is 
right hut as yellow is the addition of red and green light, a yellow 
filter, therefore, transmits both red and green.* 

THE COLOR SENSITIVITY OF FILM STOCK 

The normal color sensitivity of a photographic emulsion is to 
blue and ultraviolet light only. To make films sensitive to other 
colors, dyes are added in the process of manufacturing the emulsions. 
If a film has no term describing its color sensitivity, it is known as 
regular film and has not been dyed. It is sensitive to blue and ultra¬ 
violet light. If a film is described as orthochromatic it has green 
sensitivity as well as blue, hut no sensitivity to red. If a film is de¬ 
scribed as panchromatic, it is sensitive to blue, green and red. 

The apparent belief that panchromatic film is best for all pur¬ 
poses is unfounded. Film stock must he selected with regard to the 
way it will record the color tones of the subject in the black and 
white scale. Only that film is best which records the tones in the 
way the photographer requires them. 

When the statement is made that film stock is sensitive to light 
of a particular color, it means that tones of that color will be ren¬ 
dered as light tones on the print. The negative deposits silver for 
tones of this color which in turn makes them appear light in the print. 
If the film stock is not sensitive to tones of this color, no silver is de¬ 
posited on the negative and these tones will he dark in the print. As 
a matter of fact all objects in nature reflect some light of all colors. 

* It is also interesting to know how the subtractive system of mixing colors works where the 
primaries are blue-green, yellow and magenta. Taking the familiar mixture of blue-green and yellow 
water colors; why does this produce green? If the blue-green and yellow pigment particles are 
visualized as two separate color filters placed one above the other on a white paper the explanation 
is quite simple. The blue-green filter on top transmits only blue and green when white light hits it, 
and allows only blue and green to go through to the yellow filter underneath. The yellow filter under¬ 
neath transmits both red and green. As only blue and green hit the yellow filter the green alone is 
transmitted and this then hits the white paper and is reflected back to the observer, making the final 
color green. 

To use these same colors in the additive system, white light would be passed through each filter 
separately and then added together as was done with the spotlights. The yellow filter would transmit 
red and green. The blue-green filter would transmit blue and green. When added together the blue, 
green and red would produce white, and there would still be green left over. Therefore, the resulting 
color would be light green. 


94 




“In Port” 


Paul Louis Hexter, A.R.P.S. 


Figure 51 


95 















Red objects will register to some degree on green-sensitive ortho- 
chromatic film hut they will definitely be dark tones. On panchro¬ 
matic red-sensitive film they will be much lighter. 

By the proper combination of film stock and filter, or in some 
cases with film stock alone, the photographer has a means at his 
disposal for rendering color tones as they appear in nature, or he can 
emphasize or subdue tones of any dominant color in any subject. 
The chart will clarify the selection of film and filters. To bring a 
dominant color in as a light tone, photograph with light of the dom¬ 
inant color. To bring in the dominant color as a dark tone, photo¬ 
graph without light of that color. 


FILM AND FILTER SELECTION TABLE 


Dominant Color 

To Bring In Dark Use 

To Bring In Light Use 

Red 

Orthochromatic film 

No filter 

Panchromatic film 

Red filter 

Green 

Panchromatic film 

Red filter 

(1) Orthochromatic film 

Yellow filter 

(2) Panchromatic film 

Green filter 

Blue 

(1) Orthochromatic film 

Yellow filter 

(2) Panchromatic film 

Yellow filter 

(3) Panchromatic film 

Red filter 

(1) Regular film 

No filter 

(2) Orthochromatic film 

Blue filter 

(3) Panchromatic film 

Blue filter 


To bring in colors as they appear without emphasis on any one 
color, use Panchromatic film and a K-2 yellow filter. While pan¬ 
chromatic emulsions are sensitive to red, green and blue, they are 
much more sensitive to blue than to either red or green. Using 
panchromatic film with a K-2 yellow filter which transmits both red 
and green, the amount of blue is cut down to where the film has 
approximately equal sensitivity to all three colors. 

SOME PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS 

In portraiture the dominant facial coloring is red and this may 
be emphasized by using orthochromatic film or subdued by using 
panchromatic film. Bringing the dominant reds in dark with ortho- 


96 






Figure 52 


chromatic film emphasizes character-giving lines, blemishes, skin 
coloring and wrinkles. Bringing the dominant reds in light with 
panchromatic film minimizes all wrinkles, blemishes, skin coloration 
and lines. For vigorous portraiture orthochromatic film is desirable 
and it should always be used when maximum character delineation 
is desired (Frontispiece). For soft effects panchromatic film can be 
used. The differences are illustrated in Figures 48 and 49. Figure 
48 also illustrates a common fault with orthochromatic portraiture— 
the lips are black. A light orange lipstick is an easy solution. 

In landscape work the sky, predominantly blue, gives most con- 


97 






Figure 53 

The Grand Canyon—Panchromatic Film K-2 Filter 


cern. A blue sky can be brought in absolutely white with ordinary 
film. (Fig. 50.) To differentiate clouds from a blue background the 
blue must always be brought in dark. The choice of film to bring in 
blue as a dark tone to differentiate it from white is given in the 
Film and Filter Table, page 96. Figure 51 was taken with panchro¬ 
matic film and a K-2 filter. When photographing a grey sky (Fig. 52) 
there is nothing to be gained by using a filter to subtract blue, for 
obviously there must be blue for the filter to work. There is no point 
in using any filter on a scene such as Figure 57. 

Red is encountered as a dominant landscape color once in a great 
while, for example, at the Grand Canyon. The illustrations (Fig. 53 
and Fig. 54) show the difference between registering the dominant 
reds without emphasis—panchromatic film and a K-2 filter, and 
emphasizing the reds using orthochromatic film. 

In photographing landscapes, haze and fog in the distance can 


98 







Figure 54 

The Grand Canyon—Orthochromatic Film 


be emphasized by photographing with only blue light. (Fig. 53.) 
Photographing with red light will definitely subdue haze as the 
recent aerial photographs taken with infra-red demonstrate, show¬ 
ing mountain peaks three hundred miles away. Green light renders 
haze as it appears to the eye. 

The few remaining die-hards who insist that photography cannot 
he used as an artistic medium have no conception of the possibilities 
for exaggeration that exist in this phase of color emphasis alone. If 
photography were the mechanical reproducing art which they claim, 
good photographs would be far more prevalent and easier to make 
than they are at the present time. 

QUESTIONNAIRE ON COLOR 

1. What are the three primary colors with which the pho¬ 
tographer works? 

2. Why is a yellow object yellow? 


99 



3. If two spot lights, one with a red filter and one with green 
filter, are focused over one another on a white wall, what 
color will he produced? 

4. If the same two filters, red and green, are placed one over 
the other and white light passed through them, what 
color will be produced? 

5. What is the difference between mixing colors in No. 3 
and No. 4? 

6. What colors are the following films sensitive to: 

(a) Panchromatic 

(b) Ortliochromatic 

(c) Ordinary 

7. If a film stock is sensitive to red, how will red tones 
appear in the print? 

8. What film should you use in portraiture? State the 
reason and the disadvantages. 

9. What film and filter would you use for clouds? Why? 

10. Visualize a landscape with haze in the distance. What 

combination of film and filter would you use to: 

(a) Subdue the haze? 

(b) Emphasize the haze? 

(c) Register the haze as it is? 

If you know your photographic technique you should be able to 
answer all these questions. If you miss any, a rereading of this 
chapter is called for. The correct answers are given at the end of 
this chapter. 

EXPERIMENTS WITH FILM STOCK 

1. Select a subject where material texture is the primary 
concern. Photograph a knitted dress, or a piece of up¬ 
holstery, something where the texture while not too 
obvious is readily seen. 

Expose three commercial films, three amateur films and 
two portrait films. Develop the commercial and amateur 
series to gamma .8, gamma 1., and gamma 1.2. Develop 
the portrait films to gamma .8 and 1. Which film stock 
and development gives the best texture rendering? 

2. On a long scale subject, such as a scene out of a window 


100 



including both a well-lighted interior and outdoors, make 
two exposures each on commercial, amateur and portrait 
film. Develop one set to a gamma of .8 and develop the 
other set in cut-back Pyro. Which film stock gives the 
best rendering? Does cut-back Pyro improve the render¬ 
ing? 

3. On a normal subject such as your own home on a bright 
sunshiny day, make one exposure each on press, com¬ 
mercial, amateur and portrait film. Develop to a gamma 
of 1. Make the best prints and compare. Can you make 
a good print from the portrait film? Measure the nega¬ 
tive scales with the photometer described in Chapter 
Nine. 

After making these experiments and those on developing in the 
previous chapter, which in your opinion has more to do with quality 
in the picture, the selection of film stock or the time of development? 


101 





ANSWERS TO QUESTIONNAIRE ON COLOR 


1. Red, green and blue. 

2. An object is yellow because when white light hits it, it 
reflects both red and green. Red and green added to¬ 
gether make yellow. 

3. Yellow. 

4. Nothing—the red only lets red through and the green 
lets only green through. Whichever one is first passes 
only light of that color and the second filter will not 
pass it. 

5. No. 3—additive method. No. 4—subtractive method. 

6. (a) Red, green and blue. 

(b) Blue and green. 

(c) Blue. 

7. Light. 

8. Orthochromatic. Facial color is red. To emphasize 
facial coloring for best characterization the reds are 
brought in dark. Disadvantages are facial blemishes 
which are emphasized and lips go very dark. 

9. Either panchromatic or orthochromatic film and a yel¬ 
low filter. 

The yellow filter passes red and green but little blue. A 
white cloud is red, green and blue light. Blue sky is just 
blue light. The red and green go through the yellow 
filter and appear white on the print. The blue, held 
back by the yellow filter, goes dark on the print. 

10. (a) Red filter and panchromatic film. 

(b) Blue filter and panchromatic film. 

Ordinary film no filter. 

(c) Orthochromatic film with or without green filter. 
Panchromatic film and green filter. 


102 


Chapter Seven 


EXPOSURE 


For a long time it has been known that the surfaces of certain 
metals such as zinc, potassium, selenium and others, in vacuo, exhibit 
the property of emitting electrons when illuminated. The strength 
of these electronic currents measured by a sensitive galvanometer 
gives an accurate measure of the intensity of illumination. This is 
the principal of the photoelectric cell. 

In photographic use the light reflected from any scene is meas¬ 
ured and, on cleverly designed scales, translated into terms of dia¬ 
phragm openings and shutter speeds. It is the best method yet 
devised for accurately gauging exposures. 

Exposure performs a dual function in the making of a negative 
for it registers the tones on a negative and determines the density 
at the same time. As long as the functions of each of the factors of 
development, selection of film stock, exposure and lighting are con¬ 
sidered separately and apart from the others, even though they are 
obviously related, the making of negatives with predetermined char¬ 
acteristics is easily carried out. On page 58 are the functions 
assigned to each step in negative making. Always keep them separate 
and apart from each other. 

The exposure time for any subject depends on the speed of the 
film-developer combination, the amount of light reflected from the 
subject, and the contrast of the subject. 


103 


FILM SPEEDS 

There are four different systems of rating the speed values of 
films: H and D, Scheiner, DIN, and Weston. The first three are 
ratings based on laboratory exposures to step wedges, laboratory 
developers, and other refined sensitometric procedures. The Weston 
ratings are based on practical experience with the manufacturer’s 
recommended developer. Weston ratings are published and kept up 
to date in the United States and are readily available. From a prac¬ 
tical standpoint Weston ratings are the best, and only photoelectric 
cell exposure meters calibrated for Weston ratings should he pur¬ 
chased. 

There are meters of other than Weston manufacture which are 
based on the Weston system of speed rating. This does not mean that 
the ratings published by the Weston Company should be used with 
such meters. Only the ratings published by the manufacturer of the 
meter are applicable. 

EXPOSURE METERS 

Since the system of exposure determination which follows is 
based upon the Weston system of speed rating, the author naturally 
recommends the use of the Weston meter, either Model 650 or the 
new and improved Model 715. 

This does not imply that fine work can not be done with good 
meters of other manufacture. Instruction books supply full details 
on how to use each meter so there is no necessity to repeat such 
instructions here. 

THE FUNCTIONS OF EXPOSURE 

Films have periods of correct exposure, under-exposure and over¬ 
exposure. In the period of correct exposure each increase in exposure 
produces a proportionate increase in the density of the negative. In 
the period of under-exposure and over-exposure, increases in ex¬ 
posure do not produce proportionate increases in densities. To 
correctly record the tones of the subject, they must be recorded in 
the period of correct exposure. 

The silver deposited as a negative tone is an aggregation of indi¬ 
vidual particles of silver. Each of these particles stops or reflects 


104 


some light. As negative tones become more dense it is more difficult 
to pass light through them. 

In enlarging, the light source is always much weaker than in 
contact printing and negatives for enlarging cannot be too dense if 
tone separation is not to be degraded. It is quite possible to properly 
select film stock; develop it so that subject-negative tone ratios are 
properly controlled; expose it so that all tones are in the period of 
correct exposure, yet have a negative that is too dense for enlarging. 
The functions of exposure are to register the tones in the period of 
correct exposure and also to prevent the negative from becoming 
too dense. 

Supposedly there is great latitude in exposure and a number of 
different times which will give a correctly exposed negative. There 
would be this latitude if the density of the negative had no effect on 
its printing quality. 

For example, amateur films have a scale of 1-128. This means 
that they will record in a geometric progression light intensities as 

1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) 

The figures in parentheses show the number of steps in the geo¬ 
metric progression. Many subjects confronting the photographer 
utilize no more than four steps in the progression, so that the period 
of correct exposure can he from steps 1 to 4, or 4 to 7, or any place 
in between. 

When the scale of a subject is 1-128, and the film is capable of 
registering a scale of 1-128 the exposure must be absolutely accurate 
for there is only one exposure time which will register all the subject 
tones on the film. If, however, the scale of the subject is 1 to 8 a 
number of different exposure times can he used placing these tones 
in the steps 1-8, 2-16, 4-32, 8-64, 16-128, or any steps in between. 
All the ratios are still 1-8. The exposures also can be placed at 6-48, 
10-80, etc. The only effect of these varying exposure times, as long 
as they are within the range of the film, is to increase or decrease 
the density of the negative. Tone contrasts are in no way altered. 
Thus the shorter the scale of the subject the more latitude there is 
in exposure for there are a greater number of steps into which it 
will fit. The longer the scale of the subject the less latitude there is 


105 


for, of course, there are fewer steps where it will fit. When subject 
scale and negative range are equal there is no latitude for only one 
exposure can be given to make them coincide. 

In contact printing more or less negative density does not effect 
printing quality. This does not hold true in enlarging and a thin 
negative always enlarges better than a dense one. The purpose of 
exposure is to register all tones in the correct exposure portion of 
the negative, and when making negatives for enlarging, to register 
tones correctly without a negative of too great density. 

ESTIMATING EXPOSURE 

For years photographers have been told to expose for the shadows 
and let the highlights take care of themselves. Not all photographers 
subscribe to this and a well known teacher reverses it and recom¬ 
mends exposure based on the highlight area with the shadows fend¬ 
ing for themselves. Still another worker recommends twice the 
reading of the exposure meter with one-half development time. Just 
as there are a number of confusing recommendations on developing 
methods and developers, so there are confusions in the procedure 
for estimating correct exposure. Intelligent use of a photoelectric 
cell exposure meter makes all these precepts entirely unnecessary. 

When photoelectric cell exposure meters were first brought out 
the Weston speed ratings in use placed tones in the middle of the 
density scale. Many workers found this procedure gave negatives 
too dense for fine enlarging quality and they worked out various 
compensations for the meter readings. In August 1938 the Weston 
ratings on all films were changed to give negatives of less density, 
using maximum emulsion speed. New group ratings are now given 
for each film providing for thin, medium or dense negatives. In the 
Time-Gamma Tables (pages 67-69) the revised Weston ratings are 
included, but the maxim ratings are used to provide thin negatives 
which are ideal for enlarging. 

As the Weston ratings take into consideration the different de¬ 
grees of development required by various subjects no compensation 
in exposure need ever be made for subject matter as long as 

1. Film stock is properly selected 

2. Development is carried to the specified gamma on which 
the Weston film speed is based. 


106 


Weston speed ratings have been determined by development to 
specific gammas. All portrait films are developed to gamma .9, com¬ 
mercial and amateur films to gamma 1., press films to gamma 1.2, 
miniature films to gamma .8 and process films to a gamma of 3. 

When a film is developed to a different gamma, then the Weston 
speed rating should be changed accordingly and for a change in 
gamma of .1 the speed rating should be changed by one division on 
the Weston scale. 

Weston Speed ratings are based on a geometric progression of 

1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 

Between each step in the progression are two subdivisions so that 
the derivation of the actual speed ratings is: 

WESTON SPEED RATINGS 



Eastman Verichrome is rated at Weston 32 assuming develop- 


107 


ment to gamma 1. If it is to be developed to a gamma different than 
1., on which it was rated, then the Weston speed should be changed. 
If a higher gamma is used the Weston rating should be increased. 
If a lower gamma is used, the rating should be decreased. For¬ 
tunately there is an exact relationship here and a change in gamma 
of .1 in development should be accompanied by a change of one 
division in the Weston rating. 

Thus if Verichrome is to be developed to gamma 1.1 the Weston 
rating increases one division from 32 to 40. If it is to be developed 
to gamma .8 (a change of .2) the Weston rating is decreased two 
divisions from 32 to 20. The change of .1 in gamma, increase or 
decrease, is always accompanied by a change of one division in the 
WestOn rating, increase or decrease. For a change of .2 in gamma 
the Weston rating is changed two divisions. For a change of .3 in 
gamma the Weston rating is changed three divisions. 

A press film with a Weston rating of 125 when developed to 
gamma 1.2, should he used at a speed rating of 80 when developed 
to a gamma of 1. (A change of two steps.) A commercial film with 
a Weston rating of 10 when developed to gamma 1.0 should be 
used with a speed rating of 16 when developed to a gamma of 1.2. 
(Two steps.) A portrait film with a Weston rating of 32 when de¬ 
veloped to a gamma of .9 should he used with a rating of 40 when 
developed to a gamma of 1. (One step.) 

The present Weston ratings are based on maximum film speeds 
and give fully exposed negatives of minimum density. Some workers 
prefer more density and where this is the case the lens should he 
opened by one stop or the shutter speed halved.* 

When systems of film speed ratings other than Weston are used, 
and depend on similar development of all films, the following ex¬ 
posure table should be followed: 


TABLE FOR EXPOSURE WITH FILM SPEED 
RATINGS OTHER THAN WESTON 


Subject 

Average Contrast 
Low Contrast 
High Contrast 


Exposure 

Normal 
y 2 Normal 
2 x Normal 


Development 

Gamma 1. 
Gamma 1.2 
Gamma .8 


Film Stock 

Average Scale 
Short Scale 
Long Scale 


* This also increases shadow detail. 


108 







This is the procedure usually used in compensating for widely 
different subject scales when a Weston meter is not used. In using 
the method of changing the Weston rating according to development 
the same compensation is achieved, only with greater accuracy. 

The ideal method of working is to change both film stock and 
development according to subject scale. Figures 43, 44 and 45 illus¬ 
trate the differences achieved with film stock alone. Figures 33, 34 
and 35 illustrate the differences achieved in development. Combin 
ing these together gives the greatest possible control in negative 
making. This, of course, is not always possible or practical. 

When it is impossible to change film stock, development and 
exposure, then development and exposure alone must be keyed to 
the subject matter to allow for as much compensation as possible. 
The methods given in this hook show an easy way in which to key 
exposure and development together without any guess work. 

What then is the procedure when roll film is used and develop¬ 
ment cannot be varied? The only way out is to stay with subject 
matter which the film will record at one developing time. If the 
camera is loaded with film designed for average contrasts do not 
expect the impossible. Prints of subjects with low contrasts will be 
dull and those of high contrasts will be too contrasty. The camera, 
while a marvelous mechanical instrument, will always require 
thought behind its operation. 

SUBJECT CONTRAST 

In Chapter Five is a table for the classification of subject matter 
into groups of Low Contrast, Average Contrast and High Contrast. 
Sometimes the eye is not the judge of contrast it might he. Contrast 
depends on the ratio between the lights and shadows and the eye at 
times confuses brilliance and contrast. An extremely bright scene 
can be of low contrast. Therefore, when in doubt measure the con¬ 
trast of a scene by reading both the highlight and shadow parts on 
the exposure meter. Use the following table: 

Scene Ratio of Tone Contrast 


Low Contrast 
Average Contrast 
High Contrast 


1-16 or under 
1-16 to 1-64 
Over 1-64 


109 




PRECAUTIONS 

When the exposure meter is at an angle of 45° and no light 
reaches the photoelectric cell, the pointer should be at zero. If this 
is not the case the meter is out of adjustment. The reason for holding 
the meter at an angle of 45° when testing is to insure the floating of 
the pointer. 

Some meters have a screw adjustment to correct pointers that 
are out of line. To make this correction place the meter on a book 
so that no light reaches the photoelectric cell. Hold the book at a 
45° angle and turn the screw until the pointer is exactly at zero. 

During dry cold weather the glass on the instrument may become 
electrified attracting the pointer and causing errors in the readings. 
Breathing on the glass will eliminate any electrostatic charge. 

When using the meter, direct it downward to include as little 
of the sky as possible especially on cloudy, hazy, overcast days. No 
direct sunlight should ever enter the meter from any angle. The 
meter can be shaded if absolutely necessary. 

While the photoelectric cell exposure meter is a marvelous in¬ 
strument its readings must be tempered with a complete understand¬ 
ing of what these readings mean and when scenes that are not 
average are photographed, the readings of the meter must be thor¬ 
oughly understood. Photoelectric cell exposure meters average the 
amount of light reflected by any scene. The exposure reading is 
calibrated on the assumption of an even distribution between light 
and dark tones. If there is not average distribution between lights 
and darks, the exposure readings should be compensated. 

In estimating whether a scene is of low, average, or high contrast, 
remember that most scenes are of average or low contrast. Even in 
a portrait studio most scenes are not of high contrast, although this 
is not generally understood. 

In any scene with a principal object always base the exposure on 
the light reflected by the principal object, rather than on the average 
scene as a whole. In a picture such as Figure 17 the exposure is 
measured with the meter held close to the bronze, not by pointing 
the meter at the entire picture area from the viewpoint of the camera. 
In portraiture (Frontispiece) the exposure is measured with the 
meter held close to the facial area. The rule is to base the exposure 
on the principal object whenever there is one. 


110 


EXPERIMENTS IN EXPOSURE 


1. Make two negatives of a subject of average contrast such 
as a studio portrait. Make one negative with normal ex¬ 
posure and normal development. Make a second negative 
with double exposure and half development. 

Is there anything to the idea of doubling exposure 
and halving the development time? 

2. Make five negatives of an average subject giving exposures 

of 14 normal, *4 normal and 2x normal and 4x normal. 
Develop all five normally. Examine the negatives care¬ 
fully. Measure the negative scales with the photometer. 
(Chapter Nine.) Print the pictures making the best pos¬ 
sible prints. 

(a) Was printing paper of different grades necessary? 

(b) Did the contrast of the negatives change with ex¬ 
posure? 

(c) Did the density of the negatives change with ex¬ 
posure? 

3. On a scene of low contrast with press film, developed 
to a gamma of 1.2 make a regular exposure and an 
exposure of one-half this time. What happens? 

4. On a scene of high contrast such as an indoor-outdoor 
combination make a regular exposure and an exposure 

of twice this time. What happens? 

5. Write down in chart form the standard procedure for 

development, selection of film stock, and exposure for 
high, average, and low contrast subjects. 

If you cannot do this and explain exactly why each step is taken, 
reread these chapters dealing with negative making. 


Ill 


Chapter Eight 


LIGHT AND LIGHTING 


Undoubtedly the greatest difficulty encountered with lighting in 
photography is caused by the fact that the photographic emulsion 
and eye differ greatly in the way they see color and shadow. While 
a fully panchromatic film is sensitive to all colors, it is most sensitive 
to invisible ultraviolet, to blue and to red, the colors to which the 
eye is least sensitive. The eye is most sensitive to green, which ex¬ 
plains the failure of some pictures which appeared quite attractive 
at the time of taking. 

In addition to seeing color differently the eye and the film see 
shadows differently. All photographers becoming interested in por¬ 
traiture have a go at 45° Rembrandt lighting. To the eye, the shadow 
side of the face seems to reflect a reasonable amount of light. If the 
negative is made without the use of a reflector or balancing light, the 
shadow side prints, not dark, as it appeared to the eye, but absolutely 
black. The eye sees sufficient light in the shadows but the film does 
not. 

While nothing takes the place of experience in gradually de¬ 
veloping a “seeing” sense for photographic possibilities, one very 
valuable asset which saves many a wasted picture is a viewing glass. 
This is a monochromatic filter which when placed in front of the 
eye is a way of seeing lighting and coloring in photographic values. 
Satisfactory viewing glasses are: Wratten #90 Filter, Ilford Photo¬ 
graphic Vision Filter, or Scheibe Viewing Filter. 

No picture should ever he taken unless it is first viewed through 


112 


Figure 56 
“Mask” 



a viewing glass. Shadows with sufficient illumination to the eye but 
insufficient illumination for the film, are immediately caught, for 
under the viewing glass they go just as black as they would on a 
print. 

The second use of the viewing glass is in connection with color 
filters. Instead of guessing whether a K-l, K-2, K-3 or G filter will 
give best results, the viewing glass and color filter used together to 
view the scene will give an excellent indication of what can be ex¬ 
pected from different filters. 

MEANING OF LIGHTING 

Lighting in photography can be used in two ways. It can he used 
solely as a means of illumination without which the picture cannot 
be taken, or it can be used to create a pattern of light and shade 
across the subject. When a picture is to be of interest for the subject 
matter itself, revealing the essence of the subject through surface 
textures, light is used solely as a means of illumination, as in the 


113 



Frontispiece. When a less interesting subject is photographed and 
presented under a pattern of light, light here is used to create interest 
in the appearance of an otherwise uninteresting object, as in Figure 
56. In one the interest is solely in the subject. In the other the 
interest is primarily in the pattern. 

Figure 57 is a scene where the mood is re-created for the observer 
by a pattern of light. The subject itself, a truck and a few old build¬ 
ings on a street are uninteresting of themselves but are made inter¬ 
esting by the particular light pattern. On the other hand the Frontis¬ 
piece is a portrait in which light itself is used only to make the 
picture. The interest and significance is in Alexander Woollcott’s 
face, not in any artificial pattern of light cast over his face to make 
him look like a Hollywood movie star. 

It is not possible to have pattern lighting and reveal the essence 
of the subject at the same time. If the subject is important, the pat¬ 
tern cast by lighting detracts from this importance. Pattern lighting 
is used to make less interesting and commonplace subjects more 
interesting and more significant. This is demonstrated in the glamour 
portraits of Hollywood stars and the attention value of good adver¬ 
tising photographs. 

Basically, artificial lighting indoors and natural lighting outdoors 
are alike in that they are used either for pattern or illumination. 
However, artificial lighting indoors is entirely under control of the 
photographer and outdoor lighting never is. 

OUTDOOR LIGHTING 

Lighting outdoors is primarily pattern lighting. There are very 
few subjects outdoors which are photographed for themselves rather 
than their appearance under certain conditions of light. Figure 58 
is an exception to this. It is the realization of this that makes the 
difference between a photographic record and a picture. 

Monet painted 20 different canvases of the Cathedral at Rouen 
at 20 different hours to show the changes light made in its appear¬ 
ance. A photographer who has mastered his technique and is trained 
to observe the effects of light might make a similar series of studies. 
The height of the sun, the haze in the sky, the cloudiness, the light 
before a storm, cause tremendous changes in the appearance of 
objects in any scene. 


114 



“ Rifting ” Paul Louis Hexter, A.R.P.S. 

Figure 57 


115 







“Sign of the Times’ 


Figure 58 


Paul Louis Hexter, A.R.P.S. 


The photographer of landscapes and other outdoor scenes must 
see his subject under many different conditions of light before he 
can determine which condition will express the mood, feeling, and 
meaning in a photograph. A constant study must be made of the 
effect of light. In fine work the scene is a photograph under certain 
conditions of light, not a record of the scene taken because there is 
sufficient light with which to make an exposure. 

Landscape photography is not a question of a walk in the country 
on a Sunday afternoon to snap a few wayside shots, although many 
pictures show they have been taken this way. It is a matter of infinite 
patience, detailed study, and perhaps a wait of months for the proper 
conditions of light until a worthwhile expression is obtained. 

The hours from ten until two, when the sun is high in the 
heavens, are uncomplimentary to nearly all outdoor subjects. The 
almost vertically down direction of light at that time of day plays 
as much havoc with the subject as an unmodified vertical light does 
in a studio. Inky black shadows make their unwanted appearance 

































“Coral 


Figure 59 


Paul Louis Hexter, A.R.P.S. 


117 
















wherever this light casts them and these shadows are beyond re¬ 
demption. 

INDOOR LIGHTING 

In studio work the photographer is not dependent on nature for 
the appearance of his subject under certain conditions of light. These 
conditions are subject to his control at all times. The subtle light 
required in photographing for the essence of the subject, or infinite 
varieties of pattern lightings, can be produced at will. 

For most photographers a system of lighting must be used where 
the effect of light is clearly seen. The system also must be simple 
enough so that the photographer can understand and see what is 
done with each light and with the lighting as a whole. Elaborate 
systems cannot be considered because the expense and space re¬ 
quired. 

There is one system of lighting which conforms to these condi¬ 
tions, known as the Mortensen System. It is simple, inexpensive, 
requires no special installations and is adequate under conditions 
of both pattern lighting and straight illumination. It can be stand¬ 
ardized to work anywhere under all conditions. Later, more elabo¬ 
rate forms of lighting can be attempted but it is doubtful whether 
they will be needed or are worthwhile. 

If lighting indoors is once mastered so that interesting pictures 
with straight illumination can be made (Fig. 59, Fig. 60, and Fig. 
61) pattern pictures will become a minor part of the lighting tech¬ 
nique rather than the major technique itself. The appreciation of 
possibilities in outdoor lighting is made far easier after indoor light¬ 
ing is mastered. 

For lighting equipment, two 8^4 inch aluminum reflectors on 
seven-foot adjustable standards are required. The reflectors should 
have an adjustable tilt. Clear 500-watt projection bulbs should he 
used in preference to photofloods, as projection bulbs maintain an 
even quality of light over their useful life.* 


* My own equipment used in making all the illustrations for this book consists of two 8 V 2 inch 
Sun Ray aluminum reflectors with standard sockets manufactured by the Sun Ray Photo Company 
309 Lafayette St., New York, N. Y. Clear 500-watt projection bulbs arc used in them. 


118 




“Frustration at Forty ” 


Figure 60 


Paul Louis Hexter, A.R.P.S. 


119 













Do not use 12-inch reflectors with photofloods and expect the 
same results. Use the lights specified. The cost is one-tenth that of 
a good camera and is well worth the expenditure. 

The first step is to find out whether both lights give the same 
amount of illumination. Set first one and then the other six feet 
back from a white wall and measure the illumination on the wall 
with your exposure meter. Reflectors and bulbs of the same manu¬ 
facture vary. Mark which light gives the most illumination so this 
will always be used as the front light. Do not change the lights 
around. Photofloods vary so much over their useful life that light¬ 
ing cannot be standardized with them. 

In this system of lighting a white wall background is always used. 
This white wall is illuminated by a standard amount of light and 
the amount of light on the subject is always compared to the back¬ 
ground. This is somewhat of a Rube Goldberg photometer. The front 
light is moved back and forth from the subject until the illumination 
on both subject and background are the same. 

In the standardized set-up the value of the illumination on the 
background is measured in foot-candles on an exposure meter. 
Whether the photograph is taken in your own studio or some strange 
place is of little moment for as long as there is a white wall back¬ 
ground, the same amount of background light can be used anywhere. 
As the subject is always matched to this constant background illu¬ 
mination, the exposure will be constant. 

When photographing for the ultimate in surface values and 
textures, exposure is so critical that there can he no guesswork. 
Having standardized the amount of light for each part of the set-up, 
and having a visual means of comparison, the exact exposure once 
determined, can always be repeated. 

In setting up, the subject is placed about five feet from the 
background and the background light placed four to six feet from 
a white wall, four feet to one side of the subject. It should be at the 
same height as the subject’s head. There must he no spill from this 
light onto the subject. From the position of the subject the white 
wall background should give a reading of 16 foot-candles with a 
photoelectric cell exposure meter to duplicate the actual conditions 
under which my portraits are made. The actual distance from the 


120 









“Rose” ' Paul Louis Hexter, A.R.P.S. 

Figure 61 



121 








wall necessary to obtain a reading of 16 foot-candles will vary with 
the whiteness of the wall and the efficiency of the reflector. This 
knowledge of a standard value of the background illumination per¬ 
mits the setting up of similarly illuminated backgrounds in places 
other than the studio. 

The front light is placed on the level of the subject’s head about 
five to six feet in front of the subject which will be ten to twelve 
feet from the background. Adjust the distance of the front light 
until the light area of the subject and the white wall background 
match, (Fig. 62) viewing the subject through the viewing glass for 
comparison. 

This method of arriving at a standard light area illumination 
for every subject compensates for differences of skin tone in various 
subjects. Once the light area and the background are matched, the 
photographer can control the rendering of the light areas, making 
them lighter, the same, or darker than the background, just by 
moving the front light closer to or farther from the subject. 

The camera is then brought up, placed at the proper distance 
from the subject for the picture and the exposure is made. The 
camera should never be more than nine inches lateral distance from 
the front unit. The front unit should be placed on the opposite side 
of the camera from the background light. The front light can be 
either in front or behind the camera, higher or lower, but the lateral 
distance of nine inches from the lens must not be exceeded. If the 
camera is placed behind the front light the outline of the subject is 
accentuated. (Fig. 63.) 

When light is used solely as a means of illumination the front 
light should be kept as close to the lens as possible. As the front 
light moves either to the right or left, up or down, pattern is created 
by shadow. The transition into pattern lighting is, of course, gradual. 
The more pattern, due to light, the less the significance of the subject 
itself will be revealed. 

Raising the front light six inches, or moving it slightly to one 
side will change the highlight arrangement of the picture. Either 
side of the face, the forehead, or the chin can be made the most 
prominent light area. Highlights along the nose can straighten a 
crooked nose or crook a straight nose. These problems in capturing 


122 


Stmdand Xiqktiw Xituyum. 


WHITE- VC/ALL BACKGROUND 



Avoid J^pilL ofj 'to cA- 
c^ioond JjucjpJL on, the, 
JuArysjzX 


tytx/i Plan • • 

GxmeAa, Lb placed 
Q" IcJjsAjoJI du^Xaneo, 
horn Vtont duaUX, . 

* •JJhe dubtcJe ofc CAMEF ^ A 

came /ia om Autjed 
lb ckteWinfict ^ At^e ima^ 



NOTE: 74* 9^r±luM 

(A placed Acr that the. 

hioAlujAt faded cAecu 

and, the t<x>kcfAJOuyui 
urfwtkn&Ab ntcLtcti. _ 

FRONT LIGHT 


•• Side 
gfevcMon 

|T I Pfaxnatlxe 

1 =jjr camera, took 
ojr the *3Awd 

Jjjjtd uruLL 
cdxeMlmJtztlie 

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Figure 62 


123 























likeness confront the photographer in portrait work and this light¬ 
ing set-up will permit of their easy solution. 

The use of a single front light takes advantage of the dilution of 
light over an area as the area recedes from the source of light. Ears 
and the outline of the face will be lower in tone than the forehead, 
nose and areas closer to the light source, giving the effect of depth 
in the picture. If two front light units are used the effect of the 
dilution of light by distance is nullified. 

When the background illumination is 16 foot-candles and the 
subject and background are matched evenly, the front light will be 
four or five feet from the subject depending on skin coloration and 
the subject’s face will be illuminated by about 8 foot-candles of 
light according to your exposure meter. In reading the illumination 
of the subject’s face take care not to include the white background 
and not to cast a shadow on the subject’s face. 

Lenses differ, shutters differ, and exposure meters differ. The 
standard exposure in my studio is % second at f:9 on Verichrome 
for 8 foot-candles. This exact time must be determined by trial and 
error. It will vary for every one, depending on equipment. Make 
test exposures until you find the exact time. The negative should 
look like Figure 32. This negative was made on Verichrome de¬ 
veloped to a gamma of 1. The Weston film speed of 16 to Mazda 
light, gives the time of ^ second at f:9 for 8 foot-candles. Slight 
variations in the placing of the light can always be checked with the 
meter. 

If, instead of the front light being five feet from the subject, it 
is used at two feet, knowing the standard exposure for 8 foot-candles 
is correct, a new reading can be taken and the exact exposure found 
for the increased illumination. 

The photographer can standardize his exposure time with the 
particular background, lights and film that he is using. Once this 
time is determined there is no reason for not making perfect nega¬ 
tives with every exposure. The best negative can then be selected 
from all the exposures of any sitting without any reason for com¬ 
promise between better negatives and poorer poses. 

With the usual photographic procedure, lighting the subject in 
this manner will produce a very flat picture. This lighting, used with 


124 


Paul Louis Hexter, A.R.P.S. 


“L. Moholy-Nagy ’ 


Figure 63 

In this illustration accentuation of the outline is also increased through Solarization. 


125 













orthochromatic film, either amateur or press, developed to a gamma 
of 1.1 will give subtle tone distinctions that exaggerate modeling and 
contour. (Fig. 64.) There always will be catch lights in the eyes, a 
highlight on the lower lip and various other highlights on the fore¬ 
head, nose and chin, which are impossible to get in any other way, 
yet are extremely natural. 

When a picture is to be of interest for the subject itself, and not 
the appearance of the subject under a pattern of light, this method 
of lighting must be used. It is a natural light, not a crisscross pattern 
concocted by the photographer in an attempt to emulate the publicity 
photographs of the movie stars in Hollywood. 

DRAMATIC LIGHTING 

At times when pattern lighting is called for, another lighting 
set-up is useful. Light coming from an angle of 45° to the side, and 
45° from above the subject is known as Rembrandt Lighting. The 
background light is placed in the standard position but the front 
light is placed about two feet from the subject at the proper 45° 
angles. A reflector made from a piece of white cardboard must be 
used to illuminate the shadow side of the subject. This reflector is 
placed as close to the subject as possible without interfering with 
the picture. As the front light is very close to the subject the illu¬ 
mination from the subject will measure about 40-50 foot-candles. 
The correct exposure for 50 foot-candles is easily computed on the 
exposure meter. The background will come in as a dark tone. 

A modification of Rembrandt Lighting can be used in a studio 
with white walls. If the front light is placed three feet from the 
subject, at the 45° angle, sufficient light will be reflected from the 
side walls so a reflector need not be used. The illumination on the 
face will he 20-30 foot-candles. The background will come in as a 
medium gray tone which is most effective with some subjects.* 

Artificial lighting should he regarded solely as the means of 
illumination without which a picture cannot he taken. It is not the 
primary function of lighting to create a pattern across the picture, 
for the pattern then becomes of primary interest and the subject 

* Only the briefest possible discussion of lighting technique is given here since there is no point 
in repeating that which is already competently and thoroughly covered elsewhere. For full details 
the author strongly recommends Pictorial Lighting, by William Mortensen, price $2.00. 


126 




“Ann” 


Figure 64 


Paul Louis Hexter, A.R.P.S. 


127 







itself becomes secondary. Making a portrait under a pattern of 
light, the like of which the subject has never been under before, 
and probably never will be again, is an entirely artificial situation 
that does not make for likeness, modeling or tone separation. 

MASTERING LIGHTING 

This system of lighting always gives medium to low contrast. 
Amateur or press film that will develop to a gamma of 1.1 should be 
used. I much prefer orthochromatic to panchromatic film because 
of the emphasis on the dominant skin coloring. This may be too 
brutal for middle-aged women but it is honest and sincere. Veri- 
chrome film packs are recommended from personal experience. 
Doubtless other films are just as good but if a photographer gets one 
film that does the work there is no point in trying to find a second 
one. 

After doing sufficient experimenting to be sure of the illumina¬ 
tion values and standard exposure times, make the following experi¬ 
ments getting perfect negatives and making prints which retain full 
gradation. 

1. Using the same model and same pose for all pictures: 
arrange the background light in the standard position and 
place the front light so that the white wall background 
and highlight area of the subject are the same intensity. 
Bring the camera up into position, use the viewing glass 
and without moving the camera but changing the front 
light make exposures so that: 

(a) The forehead and cheeks are equally lighted. 

(b) The forehead is brightest and one cheek is brighter 
than the other. 

(c) The forehead is still brightest but the opposite cheek 
is brighter. 

(d) One cheek is brightest and the forehead and other 
cheek are less bright. 

(e) The opposite cheek is brightest. 

If everything is right, in printing, the white wall background will 
print as a light gray and the light areas will be accentuated as sug¬ 
gested. This may take several tries. Remember not to move the front 


128 



Figure 65 

Straight print from a full bodied negative—see page 55. 
Figure 82 is a distorted and shaded print from the same negative. 


129 


light more than 9 inches sideways from the lens or a bad nose 
shadow will come in. 

2. Starting from the standard lighting, with the same model 
and same pose make the following exposures: 

(a) Front light and camera together. 

(b) Front light two feet in front of the camera. 

(c) Front light two feet behind the camera. 

(d) Front light four feet behind the camera. 

Work on these positions until you can make perfect nega¬ 
tives from any placement of the front light. 

3. Make an outline profile portrait with the camera four 
feet behind the front light. 

4. Make a portrait with 45° Rembrandt Lighting and a 
reflector. 

5. Make a portrait with 45° Rembrandt Lighting and no 
reflectors, providing the studio has white walls. 

Work out these experimental lightings until the placement of 
the light and the exact exposure time becomes second nature and 
your entire thought can be concentrated on the characterization of 
the subject without conscious attention to the technical part. 

After mastering indoor lighting then make the following experi¬ 
ment outdoors. You will grasp the difference in appearance much 
more readily for you will have begun to train yourself in photo¬ 
graphic “seeing.” 

6. Photograph your own house or some nearby attractive 
scene at the following times: 

(a) 8:00 A.M. — sunshine 

(b) Noon — sunshine 

(c) 6:00 P.M. — sunshine 

(d) Just before a storm 

(e) Late afternoon with the sun breaking through the 
clouds. Make straight prints and compare them. 


130 


Chapter Nine 


EQUIPMENT FOR ENLARGING 


After processing a negative specifically for enlarging, it is essen¬ 
tial that the equipment for enlarging project all the delicate tone 
separations so they register on the printing paper. While all enlargers 
project enlarged images, it does not follow that all such images retain 
the full tone separation of the original negative. 

Negative tones result from the deposition of silver and it is often 
assumed that the effective tone contrast in a negative is entirely 
dependent on the amount of silver deposited and on no other factors. 
When a negative is printed by projection the tone contrast and 
separation between tones depends on: 

1. The amount of silver deposited. 

2. The kind of illumination in the enlarger. 

3. The strength of the illumination. 

DIFFUSED OR CONDENSED ILLUMINATION 

When the source of light in an enlarger is diffused by placing a 
ground glass between the source of light and the negative, the light 
rays are so scattered that they fall on the negative from every point 
on the ground glass and from all possible angles. (Fig. 66.) 

When condensing lenses are placed between the light source and 
the negative, the condensing lenses collect and straighten the light 
rays so they all fall perpendicularly on the negative, all from the 
same angle. (Fig. 67.) 

There is a marked difference in the projected image of any nega- 


131 



Figure 66 

Diagram of Diffusion Enlarger. 


tive when illuminated by diffused light rays and parallel light rays. 
This is easily understood referring to Figure 68. If a scratch on the 
upper side of a negative is illuminated by parallel rays of light, the 
scratch casts a definite, sharply defined shadow. If the same scratch 
is illuminated with scattered light rays, the shadow will not be as 
strong or well-defined because the shadow will be illuminated by 
light rays coming from points off the line of the scratch. Such a 
scratch almost disappears when the negative is projected with dif¬ 
fused illumination. 

What is true about the scratch is true about delicate tone separa¬ 
tions. The silver deposit on a negative is an agglomeration of many 
infinitely small grains of silver which appear to the eye as a solid 
tone hut show granular structure when viewed under a microscope. 
Each particle of silver casts its own little shadow just like the scratch 
on the negative. Diffused illumination weakens these shadows and 
the tone separation and definition of a negative projected with dif¬ 
fused illumination is hound to be less than the original negative. 


132 






































••• 7ke ^KqjcIiju^ ccAt k_| 

panolLei /IGJL)^ Crjj liC|ht OAR 

net ueatened bt| Atn&q UcjKJt 



1 KjS AKojcLdw^ CGAt bq 
cU^jjjOtecl njCJL)\ cAe. ijecAmEdL 

kj the. 6t/i£dj UuqhJt noLj^. 


Figure 68. Diagram Showing Difference in Shadows According to Illumination. 


The usual reasons for the use of a diffused light source: mini¬ 
mization of grain, scratch marks and blemishes are not as important 
as keeping the original tone separation of the negative. Enlarge¬ 
ments can be made which have the sharpness and quality of contact 
prints, but not when diffused illumination is used. 

The efficiency of the light source must also be considered. As 
the scattered illumination from a diffused light source falls on the 
negative from all possible angles, only a small portion of this light 
is collected by the enlarger lens. Due to the angle from which most 
diffused light falls on the negative, it is scattered against the bellows 
of the enlarger and lost. On the other hand parallel light rays which 
have been passed through condensers fall perpendicularly on the 
negative and all these rays are collected by the lens of the enlarger. 
The condenser type of illumination will give more than 15 times 
the amount of light compared to the same light source when diffused. 


133 












































































The amount of light used in enlarging definitely affects the 
quality of the enlargement. Most of us at one time or another have 
prepared a smoked glass with which to watch an eclipse of the sun. 
Such a glass is opaque to light of ordinary intensities but is pene¬ 
trated by the sun’s rays. Similarly the silver deposit on a negative 
is opaque to light of some intensities but transmits light of greater 
intensities. The tone separation in the denser portions of a negative 
is always enhanced by a more intense source of illumination. 

With these facts considered, if fine quality and delicate tone 
separation is to be retained in the enlarged print, an enlarger with 
condenser illumination must always be used. Diffused illumination 
is not efficient, not sufficiently intense, and does not give separation 
to subtle tone gradations. 

THE ENLARGER 

It is unfortunate that most domestic enlargers for film sizes above 
2% x 31 / 4 , with the exception of the Simmons Omega D 4 x 5 and 
a few others, are equipped with diffused light sources, so that the 
proper type of condenser enlarger must either be imported or con¬ 
structed. The Thornton Picard enlargers made in England can some¬ 
times be picked up second hand. There may be some difficulty in 
importing a new one, although it is worth trying. There are many 
descriptions of condenser type enlargers which are not difficult to 
construct and are inexpensive. If the facilities for construction are 
not available a friendly carpenter, given the diagrams and materials, 
will build one reasonably. 

Whether the enlarger is vertical or horizontal makes little dif¬ 
ference, and is primarily a question of working space. Vertical en¬ 
largers are compact and require little room. However, an additional 
lens may be required to give extreme degrees of enlargement. With 
horizontal enlargers the degree of enlargement is limited only by the 
distance the enlarger can be placed from the enlarging easel. 

The diameter of the condensing lenses should be slightly larger 
than the diagonal of the largest negative size which will he used. 
For 3 14 x 4 1 /, negatives, 6*4 inch condensing lenses are quite satis¬ 
factory. There is nothing to be gained in using condensers which are 
larger than the required size. 


134 


By far the most satisfactory illuminant is a 400-watt T-20 photo 
blue projection lamp. This bulb gives constant illumination over its 
working life of 500 hours and the use of blue light gives sharper 
prints. A photoflood enlarger bulb is not satisfactory because of 
the wide variation in light quality over the short period of its two- 
hour life. A T-20, 400-watt photo blue bulb should be used as the 
light source, if at all possible. 

In addition to having better tone separation, negatives projected 
with a point source of light, such as a clear projection bulb and con¬ 
densers, show an increase in contrast over the original negative. 
This is known as the Callier effect. The granular structure of the 
silver deposit of a negative has the property of scattering light rays. 
When parallel rays pass through a clear portion of the negative 
there is no scattering of light and this tone on the paper receives its 
full quota of light. In a dense portion of the negative some scattering 
of light takes place and, therefore, this tone does not quite receive 
its full quota of light. As the dense tone on a negative is the light 
one on a print, the light tones of the print are slightly lighter, giving 
the effect of greater contrast. 

The Callier effect of increased contrast is not noticed when a 
diffused light source is used, as the light is scattered before it falls 
on the negative and the scattering is the same in both clear and dense 
portions of the negative. 

It is well to have both a clear lamp and an inside frosted lamp 
available, to take advantage of the Callier effect. An inside frosted 
lamp will not diffuse the light to the extent that it will degrade tone 
separation and, with it, the position of the light source in relation 
to the condensers does not have to be changed for every change in 
the degree of enlargement. The clear lamp is used when the optimum 
in contrast and tone separation is required. 


CONTRAST CONTROL IN ENLARGING BY 
VARYING THE LIGHT SOURCE 


Maximum Contrast 
Good Contrast 
Less Contrast 
Minimum Contrast 


Clear T-20 Bulb condensers. 

Inside Frosted T-20 Bulb condensers. 

Clear T-20 Bulb, Ground Glass and Condensers. 
Inside Frosted T-20 Bulb, Ground Glass and 
Condensers. 


135 


Ground glass diffusion with a frosted bulb is almost the same as 
a diffusion enlarger. 

The light source makes much more difference in the contrast of 
a negative than is usually thought to be the case. The same negative 
with an effective density scale of 1-8 from a completely diffused 
light source, and photo flood bulb, gave effective density scales of 
1-10 with light source of a photo flood bulb and condensers; 1-16 
with an inside frosted T-20 photo blue bulb and condensers; and 
1-20 with a clear point source T-20 bulb and condensers. 

The lens for enlarging can he any good anastigmat lens with 
covering power corresponding to the largest negative size. With ver¬ 
tical enlargers it is well to have a shorter focal length lens for ex¬ 
treme enlargements. The covering power of such short focal length 
lenses should be known, as the enlargement of negative areas greater 
than the lens will cover results in poor definition and falling-off of 
light around the edges of the print. Many lenses have the negative 
areas they cover marked on them. If they do not the maker’s catalog 
will always give this information. 

When selecting an enlarger choose one that has a negative carrier 
with an adjustable tilt. While this is not essential, it is quite useful 
in correcting the vertical lines of architectural subjects and making 
other distortions that sometimes increase the effectiveness of pic¬ 
tures. The Thornton Picard horizontal enlargers have a negative 
carrier that can be rotated as well as tilted and this adjustment saves 
straightening the negative after it has been put in the holder. 

Proper enlarging equipment can he assembled for less than the 
cost of many popular cameras and to obtain quality in enlarging it 
is necessary to have the proper equipment. All enlargers will enlarge 
but enlargers with condensing lenses are far superior to diffused 
light source enlargers for fine photographic quality. 

SUGGESTIONS ON CONSTRUCTING AN ENLARGER 

There are numerous drawings and suggestions for building en¬ 
largers in current photographic hooks and magazines and these vari¬ 
ous designs are always modified to suit the individual. As there are 
certain essential relationships that must be worked out before con¬ 
structing an enlarger the following points must be carefully con¬ 
sidered : 


136 


(a) Diameter and Focal Length of Condenser 

The diameter of the condensing lens should he slightly 
greater than the diagonal of the largest film size that will 
be used. Condensing lenses are supplied in pairs, mount¬ 
ed or unmounted in the following sizes and focal lengths: 


Diameter 

Focal Length in 

4 

5% 

4% 

5% 

f/2 

6% 

5 

6% 

5% 

8 

6 

10 

6 l /> 

10 

8 

12 

9 

14 


(b) Focal Length of Enlarging Lens 

The focal length of the enlarging lens should be the 
same as the focal length of the condensers. Less than 
this decreases the amount of light that will get through. 
Greater focal lengths up to 25% of that of the con¬ 
densers are usable. The reasons are entirely optical and 
a complete discussion will be found on pages 400 and 
401 of “Photography, Principles and Practice” by C. B. 
Neblette. When diffused illumination is used any focal 
length lens can be used providing it will cover the nega¬ 
tive size. 


(c) Distance of Light Source from Condensers 

To determine the nearest and farthest points that the 
lens will move from the negative, and to determine the 
nearest and farthest points that the light source will 
move from the condensers requires a little calculation. 

Fig. 69 shows the conjugate foci of both the con¬ 
densers and enlarging lens in a condenser enlarging sys¬ 
tem. For practical purposes ED and DF are the con¬ 
jugate foci of the enlarging lens and AB and CD are the 
conjugate foci of the condensing lenses. 


(I 


137 




Consider the distance of the enlarging lens from 
negative first. This is the minor conjugate. 

F 

(1) Minor conjugate = F + —• 

K 

Where F is focal length of the lens and R is that 
ratio of enlargement. 

The minimum and maximum amounts of enlarge¬ 
ment must be decided on. If the minimum is 2 x and 
maximum is 10 x, with a 7 inch lens, the distance would 
vary between 

7 

7 + — — 10^/2 inches 
and 

7 + —= 7-7/10 inches 

10 J 

Now consider the distance of the light source from 
the condensers. The minor conjugates ED which have 
been worked out for the enlarging lens become the major 
conjugates CD in the condensing lens system. 

(2) Major conjugate = F + (F X R) 

Where F is focal length of the condensers and R is 
the ratio of enlargement. 

As the focal length of the condensers is known, and 
the distances for the major conjugate in maximum and 
minimum positions has been found, the above equation 
(2) is solved for the value of R. 

We will assume for this example that the focal length 
of the condensing system is 6". 

Therefore lO 1 /^ = 6 + (6 X R) 

6 R = lO 1 /* — 6 

R = .75 

and 

7-7/10 = 6+ (6 X R) 

6 R = 7-7/10 — 6 
R = .28 


138 



Having both values of R in the major conjugate, to 
get the distances through which the light source will 
move, solve for the minor conjugate in the enlarging 
system using equation (1). 


Therefore 


Minor conjugate = 6 + 


6 

.75 


— 14 inches 


and 

6 

Minor conjugate = 6 + — =27.4 inches ap¬ 
proximately 

Therefore, the light source will move between 14 and 
27.4 inches behind the condensers. 

These calculations are rough but are close enough 
for designing. Always plan for a few more inches than 
your calculations show are necessary. 

(d) Movement of the Light Source 

In an enlarging system, the light source must he located 
on the optical axis of the condensing and enlarging lens 
system. This is achieved by allowing for an up and down 
and side to side adjustment of the light source. This ad¬ 
justment should be 10% of the diameter of the conden¬ 
sers on either side of the optical axis. 

(e) Placement of Negative with Respect to Condensers 
Plan the negative holder so that the negative will be as 
close to the condensers as is practical. Most enlargers 


U 


139 















hold the negative between % to ^ inch from the con¬ 
densers. 

(f) Condenser Mounts 

Condensers are plano-convex lenses. They are mounted 
with the convex sides facing each other and almost 
touching. The mounting bracket for condensers is in¬ 
expensive and can be purchased from any photographic 
supply house. It is much better to purchase this bracket 
than to attempt mounting the condensers yourself. 

(g) Amount of Diffusion in System 

The enlarger should be planned so that light bulbs can 
easily be changed. Diffusion can be secured by replacing 
a clear bulb with a frosted one. A removable piece of 
ground or opal glass should be placed about eight inches 
in front of the light source as well. Designing your en¬ 
larger this way gives an easy choice of no diffusion, 
slight diffusion and great diffusion of the light source. 

A PHOTOMETER FOR PAPER EXPOSURES 

Just as the procedures of negative making can be standardized 
to insure the production of quality negatives, so the procedures of 
printing can be standardized and made extremely simple. 

In printing it is doubtful if more than one out of a hundred pho¬ 
tographers expose test strips on every negative to determine the exact 
exposure time. All photographers will agree it is an excellent idea 
but few have the patience to do it. An experienced worker becomes 
quite good at estimating exposure times from the light on the en¬ 
larging easel but always spoils a few sheets of paper now and then. 

Just making test exposures will not always insure good prints, 
negative and paper scales must be matched as well. Over a period 
of time many packages of paper are wasted and it is all quite un¬ 
necessary. There is a very simple method by which the exposure 
time and paper scale can be found for any negative, for any degree 
of enlargement, in about five seconds. 

If a measure of light is known to produce the first gray tone off 
white on the printing paper, and the actual amount of light coming 
through the corresponding negative tone can he measured, a com¬ 
parison will quickly give the actual exposure time for the print. 


140 



A photometer can be easily constructed which will accurately 
make this comparison and give correct exposure times for any paper. 
The photometer (Fig. 70) will also give a reading of the scale of any 
negative so that paper scales and the negative scales can be properly 
matched. It is hut a few seconds work to take these readings, and far 
less time and trouble than test exposures. In two weeks it will save 
its cost in paper. There will be no more bad guesses and prints of 
far better quality will be turned out. 

The photometer consists of three parts: a comparison box con¬ 
taining a block of white chalk, a standard light source which is a 
three-volt flashlight bulb, and a graduated scale. The comparison 
box is attached to one end of the scale and the standard light moves 
along the scale. (Fig. 71.) 

The scale is made from a piece of maple 22^4" x The com¬ 

parison step is a piece of chalk x l 1 ^" x A block of french 

141 

• < - 






chalk is secured from a drug store and a piece this size is cut out with 
a scroll saw and sanded smooth. This block is glued across the end 
of the scale. 

The comparison hox is made from thin sheet metal or heavy 
white mounting hoard. Cardboard is the easiest material to use and 
is entirely satisfactory. The sides of the hox are 1*4" x 1%". The 
back is ^^"xl 3 ^". The top and front are l 1 /^" x 1^4". Cut a 
%" hole in the center of both the top and the front. Cut half of a 
]/< 2 " hole in the front end of the top piece and the top end of the 
front piece. Glue the box together, paint it black inside and out, 
then glue it over the comparison step on the scale. 

The housing for the standard light is made from thin sheet metal. 
The sides are 1%" x 2", the back and front at 1^4" x 1^4", the top 
is l 1 /4 ! // x 2". The box is soldered together so that the sides project 
down, guiding the housing as it is moved across the scale. 

A hole is made in the center of the front of the housing and 
three strips of thin cardboard *4" x are glued around the hole. 
Three more strips the same size are glued over them so that the 
edges project over the other strips. This makes a pocket in which 
to place a small piece of old film to cut the intensity of the light 
source when calibrating it. 

A lamp socket for a three-volt flashlight bulb is obtained from a 
toy automobile and soldered to a piece of 1/16" brass 1^" x ^4". 
A metal strip 1%" x ^4" is bent into an L so that the base of the L 
measures The brass strip holding the lamp socket is drilled and 
tapped for a threaded bolt l^" long. This bolt goes through 
the back of the housing, holds the lamp fixture in place and rests in 
a hole in the L-shaped strip. The holes in the housing, the lamp 
fixture and the L-shaped strip are drilled at the exact height to place 
the filament of the lamp high, on the line of the hole in the front 
of the housing. 

A hole for several feet of lamp cord is drilled in the hack of the 
housing, the L-shaped strip is soldered in place and the housing is 
painted aluminum inside and black outside. When assembled the 
housing should move freely along the scale. The lamp cord is con¬ 
nected to a switch and two dry cells connected in series. Paste a 
small piece of tissue paper inside the lamp housing over the hole on 
the front to evenly diffuse the light from the bulb. 


142 


CoYiMfUActuon ojj PJwtcmefe/i 


3 /S MuU ^ob. tiyht yfpom Mss^cJ^-Xcrvui m en&/up\.- 
A AcA&jjc/i Xctj^ctIq tiykt on cc^ryoo^iACrn Jtf&p - 

3 / 8 rt Ao(e Xix^t J 4 c*n ^tiadja/ijct U^Kt Aou/ice- 


Comparison box 


22Vi"X 1 V4"XV4" MAPLE SCALE 
STANDARD LIGHT HOUSING 



INTERIOR OF STANDARD LIGHT HOUSING 

rfMe Acrl&d in the Aoubina,, tamp Ivctute , and tA& 

’ l" Miap&ct Attep ate clteu&cL A& XrnJi Xkn tioM AuLir 
^Uayn&nt ib v+ ‘Aju^\ ami lute with ‘/a" Acte jun hjyuJtxmj^. 


Figure 71 


143 


(I 




















































The scale is marked off in exposure units measuring from the 
front of the white chalk comparison block. Exposure units are the 
square of the distance in centimeters from the comparison block. 
The following measurements are sufficiently accurate for laying out 
the scale in terms of exposure units. Measure off the distance and 
mark in lines and figures with india ink. 

SCALE FOR EXPOSURE UNITS* 


Exp. Units 

Inches 

Exp. Units 

Inches 

Exp. Units 

Inches 

5 

% 

160 

°1 6 

625 

10 

10 


170 

5ft 

650 

10 ft 

15 

i* 

180 

5% 

675 

10 % 

20 

i % 

190 

sy 2 

700 

10 ft 

25 

2 

200 

nil > 
°16 

~750 

lu 16 

30 

2 A 

210 

ZIA 
°1 6 

800 

lift 

35 

2 % 

220 

5ft 

850 

lift 

40 

2% 

230 

6 ft 

900 

12 

45 

oil 

"16 

240 

6 ft 

950 

12 ft 

50 

013 

6 

260 

6 ft 

1000 

12 % 

55 

015 

"16 

280 

6 ft 

1100 

13ft 

60 

3ft 

300 

6 ft 

1200 

13% 

65 

3ft 

320 

7% 

1300 

14ft 

70 

Q_5_ 

°1 6 

340 

7% 

1400 

15 

75 

QJL. 

°1 6 

360 

7ft 

1500 

15ft 

80 

3_9_ 

°1 6 

380 

■ 73/ 4 

1600 

16 

85 

3 JJL 
• °16 

400 

8 

1700 

16ft 

90 

3ft 

425 

8 ft 

1800 

17 

95 

3% 

450 

s y 2 

1900 

17ft 

100 

4 

475 

8 ft 

2000 

17% 

110 

4* 

500 

°1 6 

2100 

18ft 

120 

4% 

525 

9ft 

2200 

18% 

130 

4% 

550 

9% 

2300 

1QJL 

±y i(i 

140 

4% 

' 575 

QJL 

y l 6 

2400 

19-9- 

A “l6 

150 

4% 

600 

qi 3 
y l 6 

2500 

20 


CALIBRATION OF THE PHOTOMETER 

Determine the highlight exposure time for a Vitava Opal paper 
according to pages 150 to 153. Use the speed rating of 8 for that 
paper and multiply the number of seconds for the highlight exposure 
by 8. 


* “Perfect Print Control”—Laurence Dutton. 


144 









The speed rating of 8 for Vitava Opal paper is an arbitrary 
number assigned to that paper for convenience. This paper varies 
little in speed over many batches and is the most convenient standard 
to use. Any other number could be used as well as 8. However, 8 
is convenient and neither too large nor too small. Therefore, the 
photometer system described here takes the speed of Vitava Opal as 
8 as standard and compares all other paper speeds to it. 

For example, suppose the highlight exposure is found to be 20 
seconds. 20 X 8 = 160. 

Therefore, the enlarger light has a value of 160 units. Set the 
photometer light at 160 on the scale and match the lights on the com¬ 
parison step by placing a hit of old negative in the pocket on the 
front of the lamp housing. Try different bits of negative densities 
until the two lights match fairly well. Complete the calibration by 
turning the screw controlling the lamp itself. 

When the flashlight bulb burns out recalibration is always neces¬ 
sary. It is well to use fresh paper for calibration and recalibration. 
Over a period of time dry cells gradually lose their energy and it is 
advisable to renew the dry cells every six months, whether they 
appear to be weak or not. 

Once the standard light has been calibrated it is set for about six 
months. The light may not burn out even at that time. However, in 
the interests of accuracy both dry cells and bulb should be renewed 
in that time. Calibration sounds complicated but actually takes no 
more than three or four minutes. 

For those who wish to purchase a Photometer the M. C. M. Pho¬ 
tometer manufactured by the Haynes Products Company, Inc., New 
York, N. Y., will be found satisfactory. This works on a regular 
lighting circuit. Fluctuation of line voltage is a serious problem in 
some industrial communities with wide load variations at different 
times of the day. This is sufficient to cause variations in photometer 
readings. For this reason the constructed photometer using large 
dry cells and a flash light bulb gives more constant results than a 
photometer working off the regular lighting circuit. 

EXPERIMENTS 

(1) With a condenser type enlarger and a negative made 

145 


II 


according to standard procedure, make three enlarge¬ 
ments : 

(a) With a clear projection bulb and no diffusion. 

(b) With a frosted projection bulb and no other diffu¬ 
sion. 

(c) With a frosted projection bulb and a ground glass 
for diffusion in front of the condenser. 

Make the prints on the same grade of paper and compare them 
for tone separation. 

Read the effective negative density scales with the photometer. 
Are the statements on page 135 correct? 

(2) If you have access to a diffused light source enlarger 
which does not have condensers, but only opal or ground 
glass diffusers, make the best possible print of a negative 
containing some printed matter or other extremely fine 
detail. Make another print with a condenser enlarger 
on the same paper. How much longer was the exposure 
time with diffused illumination? Get the best possible 
print in each case and compare the definition. 


146 


Chapter Ten 


PRINTING PAPER CHARACTERISTICS 


Some years ago I took some prints to Julien Levy* and asked him 
for frank criticism. After carefully going over them he turned to 
me and said, “If you are ever going anywhere in photography, you 
must first learn to print a picture. Go back and make these prints 
over and over again until you make good ones.” It was excellent 
advice. Making the negative is just half the job; getting the most 
out of the negative is the other half. 

Many photographers go through life without wasting time on test 
strips when enlarging. If the print comes up too fast it is taken out 
quickly. If it comes up slowly, development is forced. This quite 
definitely is not the way to get results in printing. 

Even the usual test strips of a series of exposures of an important 
part of the picture only partially give the key to perfect prints. These 
test strips give the exposure time for full development hut do not 
match the negative and the paper scales. 

A photometer with complete instructions for its use in printing 
has been included in this book because it is the only way in which to 
get the best print from every negative. Its use is faster than test 
strips and much less bothersome. True, when a new batch of paper 
is purchased, several tests are made to determine its characteristics. 
This, however, takes no more than five minutes. The use of the 


147 


* Julien Levy Galleries. 



photometer will amply repay any photographer in time alone to say 
nothing of the paper that will he saved and the quality of the prints 
that will result. 

The most important factor in printing is to have a negative of 
proper quality. If the tones are not separated on the negative, they 
never will be in the print. If the density is not suitable for the method 
of printing, good prints cannot be made. If the tones are not regis¬ 
tered properly by exposure, no amount of manipulation in printing 
will correct them. It is impossible to make good prints without good 
negatives. 

Assuming the proper negative, the factors affecting the quality 
of the prints are: 

1. Selection of printing paper so the density scale of the 
negative and the exposure scale of the paper are matched. 

2. Accurate exposure to place all tones in the paper ex¬ 
posure scale. 

3. Full development. 

Before perfect prints can be made papers must be tested for their 
speed and their exposure scales. Knowing the speed will give the 
key to correct exposure with full development; knowing the exposure 
scale, will give the maximum tone rendition from every negative. 
This is far removed from guessing, as so many photographers are in 
the habit of doing. 

PRINTING PAPERS 

Printing papers are available in a wide variety of surfaces, speeds, 
and contrasts. Surfaces can be seen in sample books at the photo¬ 
graphic supply houses. There is no way, however, of comparing 
speeds and contrasts except in a very broad general classification. 
Bromide papers are fast, chlorobromides not so fast, and chlorides 
slow. How fast or how slow is a matter of question. Soft papers have 
longer exposure scales than normal papers and normal papers have 
longer exposure scales than contrast papers. One manufacturer uses 
normal, medium, and contrast to describe exposure scales. Another 
uses soft, normal and hard. About all one can really be sure of, 
without testing, is that all manufacturers’ hard or contrast grades 
are short scale papers. How short or how long is again a matter of 
question. 


148 


Testing papers for their exposure scales and speed values is not 
difficult and the tests are performed in a few minutes. The actual 
number of papers used by any photographer is not very many and if 
each one is tested for speed and exposure scale, many wasted sheets 
will be saved. The most important point is, however, that print 
quality will always be obtained without guesswork. 

The meaning of the exposure scale of a printing paper commonly 
referred to as paper scale should be clearly in mind. It does not 
refer to the number of possible variations of grey tones visible to 
the eye between black and white. It is only a measurement of the 
ratio of exposure required to produce a white tone and a black tone. 
All papers of the same surface texture will show the same number of 
grey tones between black and white but they can have widely differ¬ 
ent exposure scales. One paper may need 10 times the highlight 
exposure to produce black. Another may need 100 times the same 
exposure. 

The meaning of subject scale is the ratio between the brightest 
part and darkest part of the subject. Here it is a direct measurement 
of the light reflected from these parts of the subject. 

Negative density scale has a similar meaning. It is a measurement 
of ratio of opacity to light of the densest negative tone and the clear¬ 
est negative tone. Paper exposure scale has a different meaning for it 
is the ratio of exposure between black and white, not the actual tones 
of the paper. Negatives have exposure scales as well as density scales. 

The tone scale of the subject is translated into the tone scale of 
the negative (density scale) and this acts as a series of different ex¬ 
posure steps which are transmitted to the paper. The subject tone 
scale and negative density scale are determined primarily by the 
subject matter. The exposure scale of a printing paper as well as the 
exposure scale of a negative is determined in manufacturing and has 
nothing to do with the subject. It is obvious that the exposure scale 
of printing paper must match the density scale of a negative for 
reproduction of all the negative tones. 

TESTING PAPER SPEEDS 

Paper testing requires a standard light source. The enlarger 
furnishes it. Raise the enlarger as high as it will go, and without a 
negative in the carrier, stop the lens down to the smallest stop and 
throw the lens out of focus. 



149 



Figure 72 

Finding Highlight Exposure Time. 


Cut a strip of paper to be tested about 1" x 6" and place six coins 
on it. With a piece of cardboard as a shield, give exposures of 1 2 4 
8 16 32 seconds, testing for the exposure that will give the first 
highlight tone off white. Expose the test strip for one second and 
shield the first coin; after two seconds shield the second coin; after 
four seconds shield the third coin, etc. (Fig. 72.) 

Develop the test strip in the print developer used as standard. 
Be sure the temperature and potassium bromide content are always 
the same and that fresh developer solutions are used. 

Some standard paper developer formulas are given in Chapter 
Eleven. It makes little difference what formula is used for paper 
development as long as the following points are observed: 

(1) Paper tests must be made with the developer which will 
he used in printing. Varying developers will vary paper 
speeds all over the map. 


150 





Figure 73. First Test for Highlight Exposure Time. 


(2) Paper tests and printing must be made with the de¬ 
veloper at the same temperature or paper speeds will 
vary. It is well to use 70° F. as the standard working 
temperature. Be sure to take the temperature of the 
developer after dilution. 

(3) Always use fresh developer for all paper tests. 

(4) Always use the same amount of potassium bromide in 
the developer in both testing and printing. 

If the first test exposure shows nothing on development, give 
more exposure by opening the lens one stop and try again. The strip 
should look like Figure 73. 

The first highlight tone off white is the first distinctly recognizable 
different tone from the paper base. It is very important to determine 
this tone accurately as it is the measure of the speed of the paper. 
In Figure 73 three steps are visible. Counting backwards 32, 16, 8, 
the highlight exposure appears in eight seconds. 

A second text exposure is now made to determine exactly where 
this highlight comes in. Is it 8 or 7 or 6 seconds? This time these 
exposures are chosen: 

3 4 5 6 7 8 seconds 

Knowing about where the tone is coming from the first test exposure, 
the second exposures are made in units of 1 second to pick up the 
highlight tones as accurately as possible. When the highlight ex¬ 
posure time has been determined, a reading of the enlarger light is 
taken with the photometer. 

Speed rating Reading of photometer for first highlight tone 
of paper Number of seconds for first highlight tone 


151 



If the first test exposure shows a highlight tone in 2 seconds, as 
the highlight tone cannot be determined accurately in fractions of 2 
seconds, the lens in the enlarger is stopped down to cut the amount 
of light used. Closing the lens one stop halves the amount of light, 
so one stop will bring the highlight tone in at 4 seconds. Closing 
another stop will bring it in around 8 seconds. Here the highlight 
tone can be accurately determined. 

It is not always convenient to see lens stops in the dark room so 
the enlarger light is usually adjusted by the photometer. 

In this case the highlight tone is wanted in 8 seconds instead of 2 
seconds. This means *4 the light should be used. Therefore, a read¬ 
ing is taken of the enlarger light; multiplied by 4, and the enlarger 
light adjusted. 

For example, if the enlarger light reads 50 and it is multiplied 
by 4 the photometer is set at 200 and the lens stopped down until the 
two lights compare on the comparison step. 

In this book the speed rating of a paper is the number of photo¬ 
meter units for the first highlight tone in one second. Paper speeds 
vary with different surfaces of the same brand, with different con¬ 
trasts of the same brand, with age, and with hatches. Readings will 
also vary with the photometer, the value chosen for the first highlight 
tone and the type of enlarger. 

The importance of paper testing is not to match some set of 
arbitrary readings hut to have a series of comparisons made by 
yourself with your own instrument under your regular working con¬ 
ditions. The following speeds are merely guides. They are not to 
be used without checking. They are selected at random from a 
number of papers to illustrate the differences in speed ratings. A 
glance at this table and the importance of making these tests becomes 
apparent. Your own results will not be exactly the same. 


Paper Speed Rating 

Kodabrom E—No. 1 Normal_ _ 150 

v No. 2 Medium 100 

No. 3 Contrast_ _ 50 

No. 4 Extra-Contrast.. . . 45 

Kodabrom G—No. 2 Medium. . 100 


152 









Portrait Proofing . . 7^ 

Vitava Projection—No. F 2 Normal 37 

No. F 3 Contrast_ 17 

Vitava Opal C. 8 

Defender Velour Black—C Normal 90 

C Contrast . 40 

I Normal _ 100 

I Contrast . 30 

F Normal _ 75 

Ilford Plastika—F2K Normal _ 100 

B2K Normal _ 150 

Brovira—7051 Soft . 300 

Kodalure M _ 10 

Kodalure R ___ _____ 13 

Illustrators Special _ 13 


The paper speed, once determined, should be marked on the 
envelope of the package. As new batches of paper are used the speed 
should be rechecked. 

Haying the definite measurement of the amount of light neces¬ 
sary to produce the first highlight tone on the paper, if the photog¬ 
rapher can measure the amount of light coming through the exact 
negative tone to print as the first highlight tone, he obviously has 
the key to correct exposure. In practice this is exactly what is done. 
The negative tone is measured on the photometer and this reading 
divided by the paper speed gives the correct exposure time. The 
height of the enlarger, degree of enlargement, lens stop, or light 
source are of no moment. A direct comparison of the light coming 
through a particular negative tone and the known amount of light 
necessary to give the first highlight tone is made. This, however, is 
part of the next chapter. 

DETERMINING PAPER EXPOSURE SCALES 

A negative in the enlarger projects a series of different light 
intensities onto the printing paper. The exposure scale of a paper is 
the range of light intensities it will record. There is a minimum ex¬ 
posure required for the first highlight tone and a maximum exposure 
for the deepest shadow tone. The exposure scale is found by dividing 
the highlight exposure into the shadow exposure. If 1 second is the 
highlight exposure and 100 seconds is the shadow exposure, the 
exposure scale is 1-100. 


153 


















Figure 74 

Finding the Exposure Scale. 


The exposure scale of a paper has nothing to do with the number 
of black to white tones the paper will produce. This is a physical 
characteristic depending on the surface of the paper. Matte papers 
show about 70 recognizable greys between black and white; semi¬ 
matte papers about 100 greys and glossy papers as high as 150 greys, 
regardless of their contrast. The difference in contrast of printing 
papers of the same surface is not in the number of usable tones but 
in the exposure times required to produce them. 

The exposure scale of a paper is easy to determine after the paper 
speed is known, particularly when the paper speed rating is the 
number of photometer light units required for the first highlight 
tone in one second. The photometer light is set at the speed rating 
of the paper. Without a negative in the carrier the enlarger light is 
stopped down until it equals the photometer light. Knowing the 
first highlight tone comes with one second exposure, additional ex¬ 
posures are made until the blackest black of the paper is produced. 

To determine the exposure scale, a piece of cardboard 2" x 6" 


154 




10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 


Figure 75. Test for Exposure Scale. 

is cut and ruled with lines apart, numbered from 1 to 10. This 
guide is placed over the edge of the strip of paper to be tested which 
is cut l 1 /^" x 6". A second piece of cardboard cut 4" x 6 ^/ 2 " is used 
as a mask. Figure 74 shows the set-up under the enlarger ready to 
make the test. As the seconds are counted off the mask is slid up¬ 
wards, covering the exposed part of the paper. The guide lines show 
how far the mask for each exposure should be moved. 

The following series of exposures are suggested for trial: 


Step 

Contrast 

Normal 

Soft 

Extra Soft 

1 

10 Seconds 

20 Seconds 

30 Seconds 

90 Seconds 

2 

12 

24 

38 

106 

3 

14 

28 

46 

122 

4 

16 

32 

54 

138 

5 

18 

36 

62 

154 

6 

20 

40 

70 

170 

7 

22 

44 

78 

186 

8 

24 

48 

86 

202 

9 

26 

52 

94 

218 

10 

40 

80 

130 

300 


Figure 75 shows such a step exposure test. The maximum black 
is easy to see at step No. 6 for no further blackening takes place. 
Step No. 6 for normal paper is 40 seconds. As the first highlight tone 
is 1 second and the blackest tone is 40 seconds the scale is 1-40. As 
papers get softer more exposure is used between steps so that each 
step produces a noticeable darkening in tone. If gradual shading is 
produced the maximum black is hard to find. 

On the tenth step of every test it is well to give a prolonged 
exposure as a check to be sure the maximum black is reached. 

If the paper does not reach its total blackness with one series of 
exposures, another series is tried until the blackest black is definitely 


155 





located. Some contrast papers may reach their blackness in 10 
seconds; others require 30 seconds. Normal papers must take from 
30 to 90 seconds and soft papers may require 300 seconds. 

As in testing for the speed of the paper, the standard developer 
is used, carefully watching the temperature, the bromide content 
and using fresh solutions. The exposure scale of the paper is written 
on the envelope along with the speed factor. 

The exposure scales of a few papers are listed below. These 
characteristics will vary widely and are only a guide. 


Paper Exposure Scale 


Kodabrom E—No. 1 Soft. 1 to 52 

No. 2 Medium. 1 to 40 

No. 3 Contrast__ 1 to 16 

No. 4 Extra Contrast. 1 to 10 

Kodabrom G—No. 2 Medium. 1 to 48 

Portrait Proofing .... 1 to 54 

Vitava Projection—F 2 Normal. 1 to 32 

F 3 Contrast. 1 to 24 

Vitava Opal C. 1 to 26 

Defender Velour Black—C Normal . 1 to 32 

C Contrast . 1 to 18 

I Normal .. 1 to 24 

I Contrast .. 1 to 20 

F Normal . 1 to 40 

Ilford Plastika—F2K . 1 to 122 

B2K .. 1 to 186 

Brovira 7051—Soft ... 1 to 106 

Kodalure M .. 1 to 28 

Kodalure R .... 1 to 16 

Illustrators Special . ... 1 to 36 


By selecting exposure times as suggested on page 155 much time 
can be saved. In making the tests on a normal paper, the steps are 
4 seconds apart, on soft papers 8 seconds apart and on extra soft 
papers 16 seconds apart. To speed up a test on soft paper, if paper 
with speed value of 100 is to be tested, the enlarger light instead of 
being set at 100 is set at 100 divided by 8, or 12^. Exposure steps 
formerly 8 seconds apart are made in 1 second intervals and the 
entire test strip is made in 10 seconds instead of taking a minute and 
a quarter. 


156 
























In timing exposures keep a loud-ticking clock near at hand and 
count one thousand and one, one thousand and two, one thousand 
and three, etc., for each second, and check by glancing at the clock 
before and after making the test exposure. 

EXPERIMENTS 

(1) Take the speed ratings of all papers on hand. 

(2) Take the exposure scales of all papers on hand. 

DETERMINING PAPER SCALES WITH A STEP WEDGE 

Another method for testing paper scales is to procure a step 
wedge such as manufactured by The Photo-Lab Products Company.* 
This wedge is a negative with a series of 19 steps each 1.5 denser than 
the previous step. 

To use it, cut a piece of paper its size and place under the en¬ 
larger without a negative in the carrier and with the lens wide open. 
Give five seconds exposure and develop in fresh paper developer at 
the standard temperature for the standard time and with the stan¬ 
dard amount of potassium bromide. 

When dry count the number of distinct steps visible. The wedge 
steps are 1, 1.5, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 16, 24, 32, 48, etc., each step 1.5 
times the previous one. If nine steps are visible, count nine steps on 
the margin of the wedge, and the ratio is 1-16. If 12 steps are visible, 
counting 12 steps would give a ratio of 1-48. 

The advantage of this method is that the exposure of the wedge 
can vary widely and only the exact number of steps of the paper 
will print. Of course if the steps border on either the top or bottom 
of the wedge another test should be run with a different exposure 
time so you are sure you have caught each end of the scale. 

* 308 W. 3rd Ave., Cheyenne, Wyo. 


157 



Chapter Eleven 


ROUTINE PRINTING 


PROOFING 

An intermediate step between the negative and the print, often 
omitted in the anxiety to finish the picture, is proofing; yet it is an 
essential step in a good photographer’s routine. With experience 
photographers do learn to read negatives but even the best photog¬ 
raphers do not willingly rely on this. A proof, no matter how rough, 
shows far more than any visual examination. 

The only reason for not proofing all negatives is the time involved. 
With the method to be suggested it is assumed that the proofs are 
for the photographer’s own personal study and will not be shown to 
anyone else. The procedure is very fast and a hundred 3^x4^4 
negatives can he proofed in fifteen minutes. 

An ordinary contact printer (Fig. 9) has its light cut down using 
one 25-watt bulb and 4 or more sheets of tissue paper in addition to 
a ground glass. Even more tissue paper may he necessary. The light 
is adjusted so a flash exposure of a negative to a fast chlorobromide 
paper such as Velour Black or Eastman Projection will develop in 
D-72 in 45 seconds to one minute. 


158 


D-72 


Avoirdupois 

Water (125° F.). 16 ounces 

Elon. 45 grains 

Sodium Sulphite. 11 ^ ounces 

Hydroquinone.175 grains 

Sodium Carbonate. 2 % ounces 

Potassium Bromide. 27 grains 

Water to make.;. 32 ounces 


Metric 

500.0 cc. 

3.1 grams 
45.0 grams 
12.0 grams 
67.5 grams 
1.9 grams 
1.0 liter 


For use, take stock solution 1 part, water 4 parts. 


Sheets of enlarging paper are cut down to the negative size and 
the negatives are given a flash exposure, one after the other as fast 
as one can operate. After all the proofs are exposed, they are placed 
individually in the developer. About 8 prints can be developed at 
the same time. They are then fixed washed and dried. Proofing, 
admitted photographic drudgery, can be amazingly simplified in this 
fashion. 


DIFFICULTIES IN ENLARGING 

To achieve quality in printing, the print must always come up to 
the proper depth of tone within the limits of the correct developing 
time and then hover around this correct depth of tone without much 
change. The exposure must be gauged to bring this about with full 
development. Papers are coated with a thin layer of emulsion and 
development must always be carried to completion. Anything short 
of this time gives feeble prints. 

If the exposure has been too long, the print will darken rapidly 
in the developer. To prevent its going too dark a photographer will 
often snatch it out before development goes to completion. This 
causes mealy greys and poor gradation instead of rich blacks and full 
gradation. 

If the exposure is too short, the print will not darken sufficiently. 
The darks will be grey, not black, and there will be insufficient tone 
separation in the highlights. Forcing, or leaving the print in the 
developer for a longer period of time than normal sometimes works 
if the exposure has not been too short], but forcing often degrades the 
highlights by fogging and veiling. The length of the time of devel- 


159 












Figure 76 Figure 77 

Over-Scale Print—Too Contrasty. Short-Scale Print—Exposed for Highlights. 

Too Flat. 


opment cannot be made to compensate for large errors in exposure. 

Another common cause of poor print quality is the failure to 
match the density scale of the negative and the exposure scale of the 
paper. A negative in the enlarger carrier becomes an exposure wedge, 
and the range of light values transmitted by the negative is the range 
of exposures for the paper. If the exposure scale of a paper is 1-40, 
it requires 40 times the light for the first highlight tone to give the 
maximum black tone. Obviously for a full-scale print on this paper 
a negative with an effective density scale of 1-40 should be used. 
Then the first highlight tone in the print will correspond to the 
densest tone of the negative and the maximum black will correspond 
to the clearest tone of the negative. When the density scale of the 
negative and the exposure scale of the paper match perfectly a full 
scale print results. 

If the effective density scale of the negative is greater than the 
exposure scale of the paper, an over-scale print results. This drops 
tones from both highlights and shadows as it cannot register the full 
range of negative exposures. Such a print is made by printing a 
negative with a density scale of 1-40 on paper with an exposure scale 


160 


Figure 78 
Short-Scale Print — 
Exposed for Shadows — 
T oo Flat. 



of 1-15. (Fig. 76.) The scales are so far apart a good print cannot 
be made. 

If the density scale of the negative is far less than the exposure 
scale of the paper, the full range of the paper is not used and a short 
scale print is produced. Such a print would he made printing a 
negative with a density scale of 1-10 on paper with an exposure scale 
of 1-128. If just the highlight tones are used, Figure 77 results. More 
exposure to get a darker print produces Figure 78. A good print 
cannot be made. 

For satisfactory prints the effective density scale of the negative 
and the exposure scale of the paper must be approximately the same. 

DEVELOPERS AND DEVELOPMENT 

Each manufacturer recommends a developer for his particular 
brand of paper. As no photographer ever sticks to one brand of 
paper, a darkroom is soon cluttered with numerous different paper 
developers. The following developers are suggested for standard use, 
not because they are any better than any other developers but simply 
as a matter of convenience. 

In paper developers the potassium bromide content controls both 
the speed and the tone. The more bromide, the slower the developer 
and the warmer the tone. Speed ratings of papers are only useful if 


161 





the same developer and same bromide content used in testing are 
used in printing. Good prints are not made using a different de¬ 
veloper every printing session. Always use the same formula, accu¬ 
rately diluting it, accurately measuring the potassium bromide 
content, and accurately measuring the temperature. It is important 
to watch these factors with whatever developer is used so that stan¬ 
dard working conditions are approached every time. 

The following warm tone developing formula is recommended 
because it permits some variation in contrast with chlorobromide 
papers using different dilutions: 

D-64 METOL HYDROQUINONE PRINT DEVELOPER 


Stock Solution No. 1 


Avoirdupois 

Metric 

Water at 125° F.. 


16 ounces 

500.0 cc. 

Metol... 


68 grains 

4.7 grams 

Sodium Sulphite. 


1 oz. 55 grains 

33.8 grams 

Hydroquinone. 


75 grains 

5.2 grams 

Sodium Carbonate. 


385 grains 

26.9 grams 

Potassium Bromide. 


35 grains 

2.4 grams 

Water to make. 


32 ounces 

1.0 liter 

Stock Solution No. 2 

Water at 125° F.. 


16 ounces 

500.0 cc. 

Sodium Sulphite. ... 


. 1 oz. 55 grains 

33.8 grams 

Hydroquinone. . 


275 grains 

19.2 grams 

Sodium Carbonate. 


385 grains 

26.9 grams 

Potassium Bromide. 


35 grains 

2.4 grams 

Water to make.. 

For use dilute as follows: 

32 ounces 

1.0 liter 

A — Contrast 

— No. 1 

6 ounces (180 

cc.) 


No. 2 

12 ounces (360 

cc.) 


Water 

14 ounces (420 cc.) 

B — Medium 

— No. 1 

6 ounces (180 

cc.) 


No. 2 

6 ounces (180 

cc.) 


Water 

20 ounces (600 

cc.) 

C — Soft 

— No. 1 

12 ounces (360 

cc.) 


Water 

20 ounces (600 

cc.) 


To each 32 ounces (1 liter) of diluted developed add 1 dram 
(4 cc.) of 10% Potassium Bromide solution. 


162 



















This developer contains a minimum amount of potassium bro¬ 
mide. For warmer tones more bromide should be added. 

The variation in contrast obtainable with this developer on 
chlorobromide papers from the A to C dilution is not as much as a 
change in one grade of paper. However, it is useful at times. 

With bromide papers and where the cold black tone of amidol 
is preferred the following formula containing potassium metabisul¬ 
phite is recommended. The potassium metabisulphite content pre¬ 
vents stained fingers unless the solution is over-worked. 


AMIDOL PRINT DEVELOPER 


Avoirdupois 


Water. 16 ounces 

Sodium Sulphite. 320 grains 

Amidol. 60 grains 

Potassium Metabisulphite. 15 grains 

10% Potassium Bromide. 15 drops 


Metric 

500.0 cc. 
21.0 grams 
4.0 grams 
1.0 grams 
15 drops 


It is interesting to know that this amidol formula works at the 
same speed as the D-64 dilution B so that the paper speeds worked 
out with one are good for the other. 

Most manufacturers recommend develoment to take place in 1% 
minutes and it is best to expose for this time. The appearance of the 
print is judged after 1*4 minutes to determine whether a little 
forcing is necessary. Chlorobromide papers can be left in the de¬ 
veloper two or three times this period without harmful results. This 
is not true with regular bromide papers. Even though a presumably 
good safe light is used in the darkroom, the developing tray should 
be covered with a large sheet of cardboard to prevent fogging. 

If for some reason good results are not obtained with the above 
formulas, use the manufacturer’s recommendation. 

After development, the print should always be rinsed in a stop 
hath to prevent yellow stains after fixing. 


ACID RINSE BATH 

Avoirdupois Metric 

Water. .. ... . 32 ounces 1 liter 

Acetic Acid, 28%... H/2 ounces 48 cc. 

(To make 28% acetic acid from glacial acetic acid, add 
eight parts of water to three parts of acid.) 


163 













After the acid rinse bath, the paper is placed in a fixing bath. 
The following stock solution makes a convenient way of keeping 
hypo. 

STOCK HYPO SOLUTION 50% 

Avoirdupois Metric 


Hypo. 4 pounds 2000 grams 

Hot Water to.. 1 gallon 4 liters 


STOCK HARDENER SOLUTION 

Avoirdupois Metric 


Water. 20 ounces 640 cc. 

Sodium Sulphite. 4 ounces 120 grams 

Acetic Acid 28%. 12 ounces 360 cc. 

Potassium Alum. 4 ounces 120 grams 


(To make 28% acetic acid add 8 parts of water to 3 parts 
of glacial acetic acid.) 


PLAIN HYPO BATH 

50% Stock Hypo. 

Water .„. 

Satisfactory with Amidol developers. 

ACID FIXING BATH 


Avoirdupois 

50% Stock Hypo... . 6 ounces 

Water.. 10 ounces 

Potassium Metabisulphite. % ounce 


For use with M-Q Developers. 


2 parts 

3 parts 


Metric 

200 cc. 

300 cc. 

7 grams 


ACID FIXING-HARDENING BATH 


50% Stock Hypo... 4 Parts 

Water ... 4 Parts 

Stock Hardener... 1 Part 


For use when hardening is required. Prints which will be etched 
with a razor blade in finishing should always be fixed in this hath. 

,Do not keep used hypo baths. Hypo is cheap. Throw it away 
after using. 

ESTIMATING EXPOSURE 

Print quality depends on full development, correct exposure, and 
matching the negative and paper scales. By selecting a minimum 


164 






















development of 1^ minutes full development is insured. The cor¬ 
rect exposure is then determined fitting this developing time. It can 
be determined in three ways: 

1. Guessing 

2. Test exposure strips 

3. With the photometer 

Guessing, of course, is the way it is usually done. With experi¬ 
ence the exposure time is estimated from the appearance of the image 
on the enlarging easel. But even the most experienced printers lose 
a good deal of paper this way. Guessing at the exposure time usually 
amounts to making a test exposure with a full sheet of paper. 

Test exposures, when made, are on a small strip of paper which 
is placed in an important area of the picture. Usually one-half the 
estimated exposure is given and 1/3 of the strip is shielded. Then 
the middle third gets the estimated exposure and is in turn shielded, 
and the last third gets double the estimated exposure. The strip is 
developed for 1*4 minutes, fixed, and examined in white light. The 
correct exposure time is then gauged from it. 

However, the easiest way to determine exposure is with the photo¬ 
meter. With the negative in place, focused and ready to print, a 
reading is taken of the densest tone on the negative. This prints as 
the first tone off white on the paper. 

Exposure time Reading of densest negative tone 
in seconds Speed value of the paper 

What could be simpler? To get the exposure time divide the 
photometer reading of the densest negative tone by the speed value 
of the paper. The speed value is the amount of light necessary to 
register the first highlight tone in one second. The reading of the 
photometer is the amount of light available for the first highlight 
tone. So, dividing them gives the number of seconds for the correct 
exposure. It is very simple and very practical. 

In printing the Frontispiece the densest portion is the highlight 
on the rim of the eye glass. This measured 200 on the photometer. 
The Illustrators Special paper used for the print had a speed of 12 
so an exposure of 17 seconds was given. 

The only place to go wrong with photometer measurements is in 


165 



selecting as a point of measurement parts of the negative which are 
meaningless in the print. In a portrait against a white background, 
use some part of the figure for the highlight measurement, not the 
background. The background should print as white, not a tone off 
white. In landscape with bald skies, they too should print white. At 
the other end of the scale determine where the black is to come and 
measure at that point. It is not necessarily the clearest tone on the 
negative. Measurements must be made from where you decide to 
print the first tone off white and the blackest black tone. 

Photometer measurements in printing do not make perfect prints 
an automatic procedure. That is too much to expect. Even the best 
workers will print 5 to 10 times to get a perfect print. Photometers 
make good prints easier but perfect prints will still require remaking, 
study and perseverance. The photometer is a device to save paper; 
it will not make perfect prints for you without your own judgment 
being used. 

MATCHING THE NEGATIVE AND THE PAPER 

If one has the photometer, it is very easy to match the negative 
density scale and the paper exposure scale. If one does not have the 
photometer it is not easy and much a matter of trials, errors and bad 
guesses. It is also hard on the disposition. 

Assuming the photographer has the photometer, readings are 
taken of the thinnest and the densest portions of the negative. In the 
Frontispiece the densest portion is the highlight along the bridge 
of the nose. This measured 200. The thinnest portion is the shadow 
under the chin. This measured 10. So the effective density scale is 
1 - 20 . 

(This measurement was made in an enlarger with an opal glass 
photo flood bulb and condensers. Using a T-20 400-watt photo blue 
bulb and condensers, the effective density scale measured 1-35. Using 
a completely diffused light source the effective density scale meas¬ 
ured only 1-10. It is obvious what can be done by changing the light 
source in the enlarger.) 

For best tone separation the light source giving the largest density 
scale should be used. In this case a much better print will be made 
using an effective negative scale of 1-35 than the scale 1-10. 


166 


In matching the effective negative scale and the exposure scale 
of the paper it must be borne in mind that tones are the result of 
geometric progressions. 

Geometric Progression of Tones 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 
Number of Steps 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 

Thus a negative with an effective density scale of 1-35 will give 
good prints on papers whose exposure scales are more than 1-35. 
The quality of the print will not he affected until the paper scale is 
in the province of the next step in the progression: in this case 1-64. 
Thus all papers with scales of 1-35 to 1-50 will give good prints. In 
practice it is well to select paper with an exposure scale slightly 
greater than the negative scale. 

In printing the negative of Alexander Woollcott for the Frontis¬ 
piece, the negative scale was 1-35 and the paper exposure scale 1-52. 
In printing the negative (Fig. 5) the effective negative scale was 
1-10 and the paper exposure scale 1-14. 

ESTIMATING EXPOSURE TIME AND SCALE 
WITHOUT A PHOTOMETER 

There is one method of testing that can be used if the photometer 
is not constructed, which will give better results than the usual test 
exposure methods and is superior to just guessing. 

Examine the image on the enlarging easel and pick out the densest 
spot in which detail is required. Then pick out the thinnest spot 
which should not print absolutely black. With these two points in 
mind cut a strip of test paper l 1 /^" wide which is long enough to 
include both spots. Fold the strip along the length, emulsion side 
out, and expose for an estimated length of time, making sure both 
spots are on the test strip. 

Then the strip is turned over and a second exposure is given. If 
the negative is normal or thin, give 25% less exposure. If the nega¬ 
tive is heavy, give 25% more exposure. 

Develop for the standard time in the standard developer and fix. 
Then judge the test strip. Never judge any tests before fixing. 

If the test strip is far out of the way, a second strip should he 


167 


tried. Having the right exposure for the highlights, the contrast of 
the paper can be judged by looking at the shadows. If they have 
gone black, the paper scale is too short and a softer paper is called 
for. If the shadows are too grey, a shorter scaled paper is called for. 

This is the best method of trial and error testing that has yet been 
suggested. It is far better than just guessing but it is still a much 
harder way of getting perfect prints than using the photometer. 

EXPERIMENTS 

(1) From the same negative make two straight prints, one in 
amidol and one in the normal Metol-Hydroquinone de¬ 
veloper given. Compare for color. 

(2) Determine the difference in highlight exposure time for 
the same paper in the amidol developer, the A B & C 
dilutions of the regular developer, and the B dilution 
with five times the amount of 10% potassium bromide. 
This will give you the compensating factors for exposure 
with any of these developers. 

(3) From the same negative make two straight prints, one 
developed in the normal Metol-Hydroquinone developer 
and the other with five times the amount of 10% potas¬ 
sium bromide solution added to the developer. Compare 
for color. 

(4) Take a normal negative which gives a good print on 
normal paper. Print this negative on contrast paper and 
print it on soft paper. Compare all prints. Make some 
further exposures on the hard and soft papers to see if a 
good print can be made on either of them. 

What is the effect of a normal negative printed on 
contrast paper? 

What is the effect of a normal negative printed on 
soft paper? 

(5) Take a normal negative and make a good print on normal 
bromide paper carrying development for two minutes. 
Make a second print using 2 x the exposure and */£ 
development time. Make a third print using 4 x the 
exposure and % development time. When all three 
prints are dry compare them. 


168 


(6) Take a normal negative and make a normal print on 
bromide paper carrying development for l 1 /^ minutes. 
Make a second print using ^ the exposure and 2 x 
development time. Make a third print using *4 the 
exposure and 4 x development time. When all prints 
are dry compare them. 


169 


Chapter Twelve 


THE FINER POINTS OF PRINTING 


There is one law in photographic printing which every photog¬ 
rapher learns from experience. Good prints cannot be made from 
poor negatives. Some good negatives, however, are improved by 
control of one kind or another. Control does not necessarily mean 
overcoming the defects of poor pictures by the intrusion of hand 
work, as in paper negative or bromoil procedure. Control is appli¬ 
cable to a straight photograph, without violating photographic prin¬ 
ciples. Used properly it further emphasizes or subdues the tone 
relationships photographed originally. There are six ways in which 
control can be used. 

1. Changing the denisty of negative tones by chemical in¬ 
tensification or reduction. 

2. Changing the apparent negative scale by varying light 
source in the enlarger. 

3. Changing the appearance of the print by using papers 
with different exposure scales. 

4. Changing the appearance of the print by modifying the 
developer, or using reducers or intensifiers. 

5. Local control in printing. 

6. Local holding back of negative areas by the application 
of dyes. 

CONTROL OF NEGATIVE TONES WITH CHEMICALS 

Intensifiers and reducers are made for photographers who do not 
know how to make good negatives. If a photographer knows how to 


170 



“Jane” 


Paul Louis Hexter, A.R.P.S. 

Figure 79. High Key Print. 


171 










make a good negative lie does not need intensifies or reducers. If 
he does not, then they are of little help because he cannot make good 
pictures anyway. A thoroughly experienced photographer finds them 
at best uncertain. Fine salon pictures are not made from chemically 
treated negatives and this method of control should not be consid¬ 
ered. The negatives should be properly made in the first place. 

CONTROL THROUGH ILLUMINATION 

The control possible through changing the source of illumination 
in the enlarger has been discussed in Chapters 9 and 11. When 
photographers dilute paper developers and manipulate formulas, 
they are attempting to change the exposure scale of the printing 
paper. Far more can be accomplished by changing the source of 
light behind the negative than can be accomplished with the manipu¬ 
lation of developers. 

CONTROL BY VARYING PAPER EXPOSURE SCALES 

Routine printing calls for the production of full scale prints 
where negative density scales and paper exposure scales are almost 
alike. This gives a brilliant full rendering. Not all pictures should 
be presented this way and over-scale as well as under-scale prints 
have their place. 

The over-scale print is the brilliant advertising print that is being 
used today by some of the leading photographic illustrators. The 
exposure scale of the paper is purposely selected so it is less than the 
negative. Figure 58 is a print made this way. The negative scaled 
1-60 and the paper scaled 1-36. The exposure was measured from 
the densest negative tone wanted on the paper, not the actual densest 
negative tone. 

The brilliant over-scale print is the best rendering for such a 
picture. It is definitely out of place in a portrait as in Figure 76. 
Here the print of Alexander Woollcott is definitely a bad job. 

Short-scale prints are the opposite of over-scale prints. Here the 
exposure scale of the paper is selected so it is far greater than the 
negative density scale. A true high-key print is made this way. (Fig. 
79.) Here the effective density scale of the negative is 1-6 and the 
paper is selected with an exposure scale of 1-70. Referring to the 
geometric progression on page 167, 1-6 uses three steps in the pro¬ 
gression where the paper will record six steps. By placing the first 


172 



“Cajon Pass” Paul Louis Hexter, A.R.P.S. 

Figure 80. Low Key Print. 


tone of the negative on the highlight tone of the paper, the shadow 
tone of the negative will only be a medium grey. Three steps of the 
progression are used out of a possible six.* 

As paper scales seldom go much beyond 1-150, it becomes appar¬ 
ent why short scale liigh-key prints cannot be made from negatives 
with large effective density scale ratios. For liigh-key work the paper 
scale must be in the neighborhood of the square of the negative 
density scale, not just double it. 

Low-key prints are short-scale prints just as are high-key prints 
except they are printed at the low end of the scale. In Figure 80 the 
negative was projected from a diffusion enlarger so it scaled 1-10 
and printed on a paper scaling 1-70, a true low-key print. 

The exposure of a low-key print is determined by measuring the 
thinnest portion of the negative. Divide by the speed factor as usual, 

* True high-key negatives can be made only of subjects with very light tones, photographed on 
very soft working portrait film. 


173 




then multiply by the exposure scale to put this tone down to blackest 
black. 

In portraits and outdoor scenes with large sky areas, exposure is, 
as a rule, better measured from the most important tone area of the 
negative rather than the highest light. Thus in the Frontispiece the 
exposure should be based on placing the face tones half way down 
the paper scale rather than getting the highlight on the glasses just 
off white. The face area is the important part of the picture. Simi¬ 
larly in Figure 52 the exposure is based on the clouds as a middle 
tone for there is not a true highlight in the picture and full scale is 
definitely not wanted. The first highlight tone off white can be used 
as a measurement only when it is important to the print. 

CONTROL BY MODIFYING THE DEVELOPER 

The actual exposure scale of a printing paper cannot be altered 
greatly by changing the developer formulas, by the use of fore¬ 
baths,* or by chemical manipulations. The change in scale using a 
contrast developer and a soft developer is not as great as the change 
in one grade of paper. 

An apparent change, however, can be made by preventing strong 
blacks. This is the reason a diluted developer makes a print appear 
softer. A greater effect of softness can be secured by adding % grain 
of potassium iodide to each working ounce of developer (13 cc. of a 
1% solution to each 500 cc. of developer). 

A soft developer formula that is useful is: 

STRAIGHT METOL DEVELOPER 



Avoirdupois 

Metric 

Water.. 

. 20 ounces 

1000 cc. 

Metol. 

. 55 grains 

6 grams 

Sodium Sulphite.. 

1 ounce 

45 grams 

Sodium Carbonate. 

... % ounce 

33 grams 

Potassium Bromide. 

. 30 grains 

3 grams 


Dilute 1 part with 3 parts water for use. 


With the use of the photometer and a knowledge of paper char¬ 
acteristics, these methods will not have much use because much more 
control can be exercised in other ways. 

* Sterry Process. 


174 










The indiscriminate use of potassium bromide in developing for¬ 
mulas, without accurate measurement is not conducive to best results. 
Potassium bromide controls the tone of the print. The more bromide, 
the warmer the tone; the less bromide, the colder the tone. Potas¬ 
sium bromide also controls the speed of the developer and each 
change in bromide concentration means a corresponding change in 
exposure time. Potassium bromide has little effect on the exposure 
scale. The apparent increase in contrast from additional bromide is 
caused by a slowing down of development time with loss of detail in 
the light parts of the print. If a correspondingly longer development 
period is used there is no change in contrast. 

There are, however, two other ways of changing the scale which 
are manipulations worth using. One is to develop in a diluted straight 
metol developer for the highlights, switching to a standard M-Q 
developer for the shadows as soon as detail comes in the highlights. 

The other method is a modification of the Person process. Soak 
the enlarging paper in the developer for two minutes, sponge it off, 
and then make the exposure regulating the timing so the full ex¬ 
posure takes from 2^4 to 3 minutes. The shadows develop out under 
the enlarger, preventing further exposure to those areas. At the 
same time highlights receive their full quota of light, thus altering 
the scale. This is a very useful process but requires some experiment¬ 
ing to properly balance the length of exposure with the developer. 

Prints can be intensified and their color improved by the follow¬ 
ing procedure: 


Stock Solution A 10% Potassium Bichromate 
Stock Solution B 10% Hydrochloric Acid 

For use take 

Solution A .. 20 parts 

Solution B .. .. 40 parts 

Water . . 100 parts 


After washing, bleach in this bath. Rinse in a 5% sodium car¬ 
bonate solution and wash until free from yellow discoloration. Re¬ 
develop in amidol without bromide and wash. 

Prints can be reduced with the following procedure: 


175 







Avoirdupois 

Metric 

(a) 

Common salt 25% sol- 

. 3 drs. 

10 cc. 


Sulphuric Acid 10% sol— 

2 drs. 

6 cc. 


Water to. 

... 20 ozs. 

500 cc. 

(b) 

Potassium Permanganate 5% sol... 3 drs. 

10 cc. 


Water to. 

.. 20 ozs. 

500 cc. 

Mix A and B just before use. 

Immerse the wet print. 

If reduction 


is not carried far enough when the solution discolors, discard and 
use fresh solutions. 

Clear by bathing in 1% potassium metahisulphite or sodium sul¬ 
phite solution and wash. 

LOCAL CONTROL DURING PRINTING 

For shading, dodging, and holding back areas during printing, the 
following accessories are required: an aperture board and a long hat 
pin. The aperture hoard is a piece of cardboard larger than the size 
of the print, with a two-inch hole cut out slightly off the center. To 
darken small areas during printing use the thumb and one or two 
fingers in the hole of the aperture board to make a small opening of 
the required shape and give additional exposure. Keep the board in 
motion all the time. 

Knowing the number of seconds required for the first highlight 
exposure on the paper, it is easy to estimate the additional time 
required to darken any area. 

To darken areas at the edge of the print without exposure of the 
center areas (the Frontispiece is slightly shaded this way), the fist 
is clenched and kept over the center of the print find the arm moved 
back and forth in a sweeping movement. (Fig. 81.) The fist keeps 
the center area from being exposed and the swing of the arm keeps 
the areas of the print shadowed by the arm from being too completely 
shadowed. Gradually raising the fist will graduate the darkening 
toward the edges of the print. 

To lighten small areas on the print, a tuft of cotton is stuck on the 
tip of a long hat pin and the required areas are shaded during ex¬ 
posure. The hat pin is kept in constant motion. 

The effectiveness of almost any print is greatly enhanced by a 
judicious use of control to darken light areas and lighten shadow 
areas. In this way the center of interest of the picture is set off and 


176 









tone areas are blended one into the other. Checker board patterns 
of lights and darks are softened and brilliant white areas which trap 
the eye are toned down. Skillful technique in this part of the photo¬ 
graphic process is of great help to an artist who chooses photography 
as the medium in which to work. 

Some prints are also improved by distortion or elongation which 
is accomplished by (1) tilting the negative carrier, (2) tilting tin 
printing paper holder, or (3) supporting the printing paper in sue. 
a way that it does not lie flat. The lens is stopped down sufficiently to 
print the negative sharply. Architectural subjects are straightened 
by (1) and (2). Distortion can be used to give added meaning to a 
picture (Fig. 82) or it can produce comical images like the curved 
mirrors in an amusement park (Fig. 83). 

Controlled prints are not a matter of one or two tries and then 
success. Sometimes skillful workers make as many as 20 prints to 
achieve maximum effectiveness. A great deal of patience, a good 
supply of paper, and a knowledge of effective picture presentation 


177 




are the essentials for the successful use of control in projection 
printing.* 

LOCAL CONTROL BY DYE STAINING 

If large negative areas must be held back, it is easier to stain them 
red with new coccine than to attempt to hold them back by shading. 

NEW COCCINE STOCK SOLUTIONS 
Dissolve one gram (15 grains) of new coccine in 100 cc. (1 ounce) 
of distilled water. Make the following dilutions: 


Stock Solution Distilled Water 

No. 1 . 25 cc. (14 ounce) 300 cc. (3 ounces) 

No. 2 ....... 25 cc. (14 ounce) 150 cc. (1*4 ounces) 

No. 3 ... 25 cc. (jounce) 75 cc. ( % ounces) 

No. 4 ..... 25 cc. ounce) . 


The dye is applied in small quantities with a No. 2 water color 
brush starting with the lightest stock solution and using more con¬ 
centrated solutions until the areas are sufficiently stained to hold 
them back. A few trials will show what can be expected from the 
color. When the negative does not seem to take more dye, allow it to 
dry for two minutes and proceed again. Always work slowly for a 
gradual staining. 

Excess dye should never remain on the negative surface and can 
be wiped off with a tuft of cotton. New coccine should he applied so 
gradually that no outline of the dye appears in the print. The 
appearance of an outline is caused by using the concentrated dye 
solution too quickly. If a mistake is made, the dye can be washed 
out of the negative. 

LOCAL CONTROL WITH ETCHADINE 

Etchadine** is a patented composition for local reduction. It is 
quite useful in removing or lightening unwanted large areas of blacks 
on prints which would be difficult to attack in routine finishing. The 
Etchadine control medium is spread over the surface of the either 
wet or dry print with a wad of cotton. After a minute, light applica- 

* The technique of printing control is only briefly indicated here. For full details see New Pro¬ 
jection Control, by William Mortensen, price $2.75. 

** Manufactured by Jamieson Products Company, Redondo Beach, Calif. 


178 












“The Mendicant” Paul Louis Hexter, A.R.P.S. 

Figure 82. Distorted Print. Figure 65 is a straight print. 


179 










tions of the reducing solution appropriately thinned are made. The 
amount of thinning determines the speed and degree of reduction. 
When staining takes place the paper is swabbed with the control 
medium. Using Etchadine involves the successive application of 
medium, reducer and more medium. The print must be refixed and 
washed. 

EXPERIMENTS 

(1) Make a straight print of a portrait negative. Make a 
second print giving an all-over exposure of one-half the 
required time, and with the aperture board shade in the 
hair accents to the full time, the face alone for an addi¬ 
tional one-quarter of the time, making three-quarter 
exposure on the face. Then give an additional quarter 
exposure to the eyes, mouth, and contour, breaking the 
contour line rather than making the increase in exposure 
continuous all over it. Give any additional exposure to 
cheeks, chin and forehead, or ears, required for emphasis 
or toning down after an examination of the straight print. 

Shading of this nature is not the simplest manipula¬ 
tion in the world. Properly done it is so gradual and 
delicate it cannot be perceived yet it immeasurably adds 
to the effectiveness of every picture by giving additional 
emphasis to the accents. Such control will not make a 
bad picture good but it will make a good picture better 
because of greater emphasis on important areas. 

(2) Take a portrait negative which has been made against 
a white background and give it the required exposure. 
Remove the negative carrier and stop the enlarger lens 
down to its smallest stops. With the fist over the already 
exposed areas and the arm moving from side to side, 
shade in the corners of the picture, but not to the extent 
of giving a halo around the head. The darkening of the 
corners keeps the picture in the frame and can be used 
to some extent in almost any picture. 

To estimate how many seconds to shade in the back¬ 
ground, measure the amount of light coming through the 
enlarger with the negative removed and the lens stopped 


180 



“Egoist Image” Paul Louis Hexter, A.R.P.S. 

Figure 83. Distorted Print. 


down all the way. Divide the highlight exposure factor 
of the paper into it and you have the time required for 
the first tone off white. Judgment will tell you how much 
to increase this exposure to reach the desired grey tone. 


181 


Chapter Thirteen 


FINISHING, MOUNTING AND FRAMING 


Photographers unable to achieve true photographic quality in 
their work have resorted to manual retouching of the negative to 
correct its shortcomings. Tonal gradation and texture rendition are 
the absolute properties of the photographic medium and if they are 
not recorded originally in the negative, hand work will never imitate 
them. 

The very characteristics that make photography a fine expressive 
medium are entirely overlooked by many photographers. It is no 
great wonder that people generally fail to admire portraits made with 
artificial pattern lighting in imitation of Hollywood, a complete lack 
of emphasis on texture and tone gradation, and much unnecessary 
retouching. 

Such photographers regard the negative as more or less of a 
tracing of the face on which to perform the operation of retouching. 
Any semblance of actual texture is immediately obliterated with 
cross-hatching. Character lines are subdued and often eliminated. 
Mouths are reshaped, eyes are reset, and noses are remoulded until 
the resulting portrait, with skin texture as smooth and toneless as a 
plate of ice cream, bears little resemblance to the actuality of the 
person who sat for it. 

Retouching, or the imitation of photographic quality by hand¬ 
work, is unalterably bad. No artist has yet been able to imitate pho¬ 
tographic quality regardless of his cleverness. If gradation is not in 
the original negative, it cannot he put in afterwards synthetically. 


182 


Finishing a print is quite different from retouching, for the aim 
of finishing is to emphasize photographic quality, not to create it. 
There is no general corrective for poor technique. 

Finishing consists of: 

(1) Touching all light spots with India ink to match the sur¬ 
rounding area. 

(2) Etching all dark spots with a razor blade until they 
match the surrounding areas. 

All matte papers will take India ink. However, all matte papers 
can not be etched. Papers are tested for suitable etching qualities 
by abrading the surface with a new razor blade. The gelatine surface 
must powder easily without pulling or gouging. Use Eastman Opal C 
to get the feel of it. Many satisfactory papers are manufactured. 

Semi-gloss and gloss papers are difficult to finish because etching 
and spotting without leaving traces is more difficult. Some lint and 
dirt always show on enlargements of any considerable size even 
when scrupulous cleanliness is observed and these marks always 
clean up more easily on matte paper.* In enlarging work, semi-gloss 
and glossy papers give too much trouble in finishing except for those 
occasional negatives which have few imperfections. 

SPOTTING THE PRINT 

The first operation in finishing is spotting with stick India ink 
applied with a No. 2 water color brush. A palette for India ink is 
sold at all artists’ supply houses. It consists of a smooth slate square 
hollowed on one surface and a square of ground glass. In spotting 
light tones where little color is required, the India ink is rubbed on 
the smooth slate. In spotting dark tones which require more color, 
the India ink is rubbed on the rougher ground glass. 

In working, the brush is touched to the tongue and a small amount 
of ink is deftly picked from the palette. A trial for color is made on 
the border of the print and, if correct, the spot is touched in with the 
brush. 

Always work with an almost dry brush, going over the work 

* Always clean the glass in your enlarger before using. Use a solution of 85 cc. ethyl alcohol, 
10 cc. methyl alcohol, 5 cc. ammonia. Apply with a tuft of cotton and wipe off before dry with a 
chamois. Then dust with a camel hair brush. This will eliminate much of the dirt on enlarging. This 
solution can also be used on dirty negatives to remove spots and finger marks. 


183 




several times rather than applying all the color in one touch. The 
brush should never be wet enough to deposit a globule of water on 
the surface of the print. Areas larger than pin points should he 
spotted from the edges inward. After five minutes practice any print 
can be spotted so that the work cannot be seen even on minute 
examination. India ink dries without a sheen and matte paper takes 
the ink perfectly. When spotting semi-gloss or gloss papers, a touch 
of ordinary mucilage should be added to match the sheen of these 
papers. 


ETCHING THE PRINT 


The second operation in finishing a print is etching with a razor 
blade. The razor blade etch is used for the opposite of spotting, for 
black spots make their unwanted appearance on prints just as often 
as white spots. The way to remove them is to scrape them out with 
the edge of a new Autostrop razor blade. To take the etch, the print 
must always be bone dry. 


Figure 84. Print Before Finishing. 


m 








Figure 85. Print After Finishing. 


The edge of the blade is held lightly between the thumb and 
forefinger and the black spots are poivdered away. There is a touch 
for this work that comes with practice. A dull blade or too heavy 
touch will gouge the paper and sometimes ruin the print. In small 
areas the blade is worked toward you and in larger areas the blade 
is pushed away from you. The razor blade etch is just as important 
as spotting with India ink. 

Figures 84 and 85 illustrate the difference between a straight 
enlargement with more than the usual number of blemishes and the 
finished print, spotted and etched. No trace of finishing can be 
found on the finished print. 

Small black areas can he darkened, if necessary, with a Wolfe BB 
Carbon pencil. Larger dark areas can be given an even tone by 
blending the pencil work with pumice and cotton. Large white areas 
cannot fie darkened with pencil work and if such darkening is re¬ 
quired these areas must be shaded-in at the time of making the print.* 

* For a detailed and illustrated discussion of the technique briefly indicated here see Print Finish¬ 
ing by William Mortensen. $2.50. 


185 








MOUNTING 

A photograph should never be displayed until it is properly 
finished and mounted. For mounting stock, smooth triple-weight 
cream white paper cut to 16" x 20" can be purchased reasonably in 
quantities of 50 or 100 sheets from a wholesale paper house. This 
mount size is acceptable in all salons and, therefore, should be 
adopted as standard. 

Pictures look best when mounted on a step-off of neutral colored 
paper, such as Strathmore Charcoal Gray. Black step-offs are some¬ 
times effective with low key prints but are too outstanding for most 
pictures. The step-off is cut one-eighth of an inch larger all around 
than the picture and the picture then mounted on it. 

The adhesive for mounting is Higgins Vegetable Glue or rubber 
cement. A very narrow thin film of adhesive on the upper edge of 
the print is all that is necessary if the picture is placed under glass, 
otherwise the adhesive should be placed on both top and bottom. The 
print and step-off are placed under pressure for a few minutes. An 
old paper press can be used or the weight of several books is sufficient. 
If too much glue is used the paper may cockle. This will not happen 
with rubber cement. 

To space the print properly on the mount, lay the print along 
one edge and measure the distance from the outer edge of the print 
to the far side of the mount. Divide this in half and locate the print 
this distance from the side of the mount. To space the print properly 
from top to bottom, place the print at the top of the mount and 
measure the distance from the bottom of the print to the bottom of 
the mount. Divide this into thirds and use one-third for the space at 
the top and two-thirds for the space at the bottom. Off-center mount¬ 
ing should never be used, for it is a frank admission of a picture 
with insufficient subject matter bidding for attention by peculiar 
mounting. 

FRAMING 

Pictures should be kept under glass whenever possible. Grade 
“A” white picture glass 16" x 20" can be purchased inexpensively in 
standard boxes of 23 pieces from a wholesale glass company. A 
suitable heavy cardboard for backing is No. 25 chip board which 


186 


can be purchased from a wholesale paper house in packages of 25 
pieces 32" x 40". They will gladly cut it 15 15/16" x 19 15/16", 
which is the proper size for backing glass 16" x 20". Having the 
mounts, the hacking board and glass all cut to standard size makes 
framing easy. 

If the framed pictures are to be hung on walls, drill two holes in 
the backing board before framing the picture and insert metal passe¬ 
partout hangers. The small cloth passe-partout hangers will not 
support the weight of a picture this size. Picture wire joins the 
passe-partout hangers after the framing is done. 

The mounted picture is placed on the hacking board, the glass 
placed over it, and the backing board, mount and glass are clipped 
together with clothes-pin clips to prevent slipping. With everything 
in order a piece of passe-partout binding longer than the edge of the 
glass is torn off the roll. The ends of the passe-partout are temporarily 
clipped in place on the glass with clothes-pin clips and the passe¬ 
partout binding is scored so the proper width will be on the face of 
the glass. 

The strip of passe-partout is removed, placed on a blotter, and 
dampened with a wet sponge. Office supply houses sell a small stamp 
wetting sponge in the end of a celluloid tube. This is ideal for passe¬ 
partout work. The wet passe-partout binding is placed on the glass 
and pressed into place, each side in turn.* 

If a picture is worthwhile it is worth the time and effort needed 
to finish, mount and frame under glass. A picture should always he 
presented in the most effective possible manner. The appearance of 
a fine print finished and framed should be a source of pride and 
pleasure. 


* For a detailed, illustrated discussion of this mounting and framing technique see Print Finish¬ 
ing, by William Mortensen. $2.50. 


187 



CONCLUSION 


An effective public address is dependent upon something to say, 
a vocabulary, and a manner of delivery which commands attention. 
An effective photograph is dependent upon these same conditions. 
The vocabulary of photography is the technique, and the manner 
of delivery is the composition. To have the manner of delivery and 
the vocabulary without having something to say is like shadow 
boxing—it is good practice hut has no meaning. 

The ability to say something is as uncommon in photography as 
in public speaking. A photograph may be executed with brilliant 
technique, its composition may be flawless, yet it may receive no 
more than a passing glance from an observer. There must be more 
than just technique. 

Creative work is not accomplished by the aimless use of technique 
waiting for some mysterious intuition to call HALT, hoping to arrive 
at a destination the way to which is not known. On the contrary 
creative work is accomplished only when a purposeful mind knows 
its destination and drives straight toward it. Whether in architecture, 
painting, sculpture, or photography, creative work is the result of 
purposeful planning. It does not mysteriously happen. To do fine 
work in any medium the man must know his goal. 

We are all entitled to our opinions of what constitutes good pho¬ 
tography and there is no quarrel with any photographer—snapshot, 
press or commercial—who uses the camera for honest factual record¬ 
ing. The quarrel begins when artistic merit is claimed for such work 
when obviously it is no more than good craftsmanship. There can 
be no art in factual mechanical reproduction. 

The worship of technique for itself caused a painter to remark. 
“Photography would be a fine thing if it were not for the pictures.” 
Photography is a modern art in a modern age. Its possibilities are 
uncharted, unexplored and unlimited. It is a new art form with 
much unknown territory ready to he conquered by adventurous, 
active minds with knowledge as the one required weapon. The 
perfection of technique is just the beginning—not the end. 


188 


“There are two great rules of life, the one 
general and the other particular. The first is that 
every one can, in the end, get what he wants if he 
only tries. This is the general rule. The particu¬ 
lar rule is that every individual is, more or less, 
an exception to the rule.” 


Samuel Butler. 
















































